Vietnam War 1965 1974 causes. Reasons for the US attack on Vietnam (12 photos)

It became one of the most important events of the Cold War period. Its course and results largely predetermined the further development of events throughout Southeast Asia.

The armed struggle in Indochina lasted more than 14 years, from the end of 1960 to April 30, 1975. Direct US military intervention in the affairs of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam continued for more than eight years. Military operations also took place in a number of areas of Laos and Cambodia.

In March 1965, 3,500 Marines were landed in Da Nang, and in February 1968, US troops in Vietnam already numbered 543 thousand people and a large amount of military equipment, accounting for 30% of the combat strength of the US Army, 30% of Army aviation helicopters, about 40% tactical aircraft, almost 13% of attack aircraft carriers and 66% of the Marine Corps. After the conference in Honolulu in February 1966, the heads of the US allied countries in the SEATO bloc sent troops to South Vietnam: South Korea - 49 thousand people, Thailand - 13.5 thousand, Australia - 8 thousand, Philippines - 2 thousand and New Zealand - 350 people.

The USSR and China took the side of North Vietnam, providing it with extensive economic, technical and military assistance. By 1965, the Democratic Republic of Vietnam had received 340 million rubles free of charge or in the form of loans from the Soviet Union alone. Weapons, ammunition and other materiel were supplied to the VNA. Soviet military specialists helped VNA soldiers master military equipment.

In 1965-1666, American-Saigon troops (over 650 thousand people) launched a major offensive with the goal of capturing the cities of Pleiku and Kontum, cutting up the NLF forces, pressing them to the borders of Laos and Cambodia and destroying them. At the same time, they widely used incendiary agents, chemical and biological weapons. However, JSC SE thwarted the enemy's offensive by launching active operations in various areas of South Vietnam, including those adjacent to Saigon.

With the beginning of the dry season of 1966-1967, the American command launched a second major offensive. Units of the SE JSC, skillfully maneuvering, avoided attacks and suddenly attacked the enemy from the flanks and rear, making extensive use of night operations, underground tunnels, communication passages and shelters. Under the attacks of the SE JSC, the American-Saigon troops were forced to go on the defensive, although by the end of 1967 their total number already exceeded 1.3 million people. At the end of January 1968, the armed forces of the NLF themselves launched a general offensive. It involved 10 infantry divisions, several separate regiments, a large number of battalions and companies of regular troops, partisan detachments (up to 300 thousand people), as well as the local population - in total about one million fighters. 43 of the largest cities in South Vietnam, including Saigon (Ho Chi Minh City), and 30 most important air bases and airfields were attacked simultaneously. As a result of the 45-day offensive, the enemy lost more than 150 thousand people, 2,200 aircraft and helicopters, 5,250 military vehicles, and 233 ships were sunk and damaged.

During the same period, the American command launched a large-scale “air war” against the Democratic Republic of Vietnam. Up to one thousand combat aircraft carried out massive attacks on DRV targets. In 1964-1973, over two million aircraft sorties were flown over its territory, and 7.7 million tons of bombs were dropped. But the bet on an “air war” failed. The government of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam carried out a massive evacuation of the population of cities to the jungle and shelters created in the mountains. The DRV Armed Forces, having mastered supersonic fighters, anti-aircraft missile systems, and radio equipment received from the USSR, created a reliable air defense system for the country, which destroyed up to four thousand American aircraft by the end of 1972.

In June 1969, the People's Congress of South Vietnam proclaimed the formation of the Republic of South Vietnam (RSV). In February 1968, the SE Defense Army was transformed into the People's Armed Forces for the Liberation of South Vietnam (PVLS SE).

Major defeats in South Vietnam and the failure of the “air war” forced the US government in May 1968 to begin negotiations on a peaceful settlement of the Vietnam problem and agree to stop bombing and shelling of the territory of the South Vietnam.

Since the summer of 1969, the US administration has set a course for the “Vietnamization” or “de-Americanization” of the war in South Vietnam. By the end of 1970, 210 thousand American soldiers and officers were withdrawn from South Vietnam, and the size of the Saigon army was increased to 1.1 million people. The United States transferred to it almost all the heavy weapons of the withdrawn American troops.

In January 1973, the US government signed an agreement to end the war in Vietnam (Paris Agreement), which provided for the complete withdrawal of US and allied troops and military personnel from South Vietnam, the dismantling of US military bases, and the mutual return of prisoners of war and held foreign civilians.

Up to 2.6 million American soldiers and officers, equipped with a large amount of the most modern military equipment, participated in the Vietnam War. US spending on the war reached $352 billion. During its course, the American army lost 60 thousand people killed and over 300 thousand wounded, about 9 thousand planes and helicopters, and a large amount of other military equipment. After the withdrawal of American troops from South Vietnam, over 10 thousand American military advisers remained in Saigon under the guise of “civilians”. US military aid to the Saigon regime in 1974-1975 amounted to more than four billion dollars.

In 1973-1974, the Saigon army intensified its fighting. Its troops regularly carried out a large number of so-called “pacification operations”; the Air Force systematically bombed areas in the zone of control of the South East government. At the end of March 1975, the command of the Army of the Republic of Vietnam concentrated all remaining forces for the defense of Saigon. In April 1975, as a result of the lightning-fast operation Ho Chi Minh, North Vietnamese troops defeated the South Vietnamese army, which was left without allies, and captured all of South Vietnam.

The successful completion of the war in Vietnam made it possible in 1976 to unite the Democratic Republic of Vietnam and South Vietnam into a single state - the Socialist Republic of Vietnam.

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On April 30, 1975, the Vietnam War ended. The Americans called it “a hellish jungle disco.” Many films have been made about it and hundreds of books have been written, but the truth about that war will remain only in the memory of those who lived through it.

Domino theory

The Vietnam War became the longest local war of modern times. It lasted almost 20 years and was very costly for the United States. Between 1965 and 1975 alone, $111 billion was spent. In total, over 2.7 million US military personnel took part in hostilities. Vietnam veterans make up almost 10% of their generation. 2/3 of the Americans who fought in Vietnam were volunteers.

The need for war was explained by the “domino theory.” The United States seriously feared that the “communist infection” could spread to the entire Asian region. Therefore, it was decided to make a preemptive strike.

Guerrilla warfare

The Americans were ill-prepared for the conditions of guerrilla warfare. For the Vietnamese, this was already the third war in a row and they had perfectly mastered the experience of the previous two. The Viet Cong successfully compensated for the lack of military supplies with ingenuity and hard work. In the impenetrable jungle, they set bamboo traps and land mines filled with American gunpowder from unexploded shells, and installed “Vietnamese souvenirs.”
The war also went on underground. Vietnamese partisans dug up a whole network of underground communications in which they successfully hid. To combat them, in 1966, the Americans created special units called “tunnel rats.”

It was an extremely difficult task to drive the Viet Cong out of the ground. In addition to fire and traps, the “tunnel rats” could also be waiting for snakes and scorpions, which the partisans deliberately baited. Such methods led to a very high mortality rate among “tunnel rats”. Only half of the train returned from their holes.

The "Iron Triangle", the area where the catacombs were discovered, was eventually simply destroyed by the Americans with B-52 bombing.

Military experiments

The Vietnam War was a testing ground for the United States for new types of weapons. In addition to the well-known napalm, which destroyed entire villages, the Americans also tested chemical and even climate weapons. The most famous use of the latter is Operation Popeye, when US transport workers sprayed silver iodite over strategic areas of Vietnam. As a result, the amount of precipitation tripled, roads were washed away, fields and villages were flooded, and communications were destroyed.

The American military also acted radically with the jungle. Bulldozers uprooted trees and topsoil, and herbicides and defoliants (Agent Orange) were sprayed from above onto the rebel stronghold. This severely disrupted the ecosystem and in the long term led to widespread illness and infant mortality.

"Turntables"

On average, an American soldier spent 240 days a year in combat. That's a lot. This “productivity” was provided by helicopters. The Iroquois helicopter (UH-1) became one of the symbols of this war. Helicopter pilots often rescued soldiers from encirclement; sometimes the pilots had to perform maneuvers right in the jungle, lifting the plane using the lawnmower system, breaking rudders and propellers.

The number of American helicopters grew at an unprecedented rate. Already in the spring of 1965, there were about 300 Iroquois vehicles alone. By the end of the 60s, there were more American helicopters in Indochina than were in service with the armies of all states. There were 2500 Iroquois alone.

There were many “Iroquois”, but they were not always a salvation. Low payload and low speed made helicopters easy prey for machine gunners and rocket launchers. Accidents also occurred for almost random reasons. There were cases when the pilots made mistakes, the helicopter “swiped” and it crashed.

According to M. V. Nikolsky’s calculations, during the 11 years of the war in Southeast Asia, American helicopters made 36 million sorties, flying 13.5 million hours, 31,000 helicopters were damaged by anti-aircraft fire, but only 3,500 of them (10%) were shot down or made an emergency landing.

Such a low ratio of losses to the number of sorties is unique for aircraft in conditions of intense combat - 1:18,000.

Russians in Vietnam

American films like "Rambo" portray the Soviet special forces soldier as almost the main enemy of American soldiers, but this is not so. The USSR did not send special forces to Vietnam. Moreover, Soviet officers did not even officially take part in the clashes. Firstly, there was no order for this, and secondly, Soviet military specialists were too valuable to be “thrown away.”
From the USSR, a little over six thousand officers and about 4,000 privates arrived in Vietnam. These figures clearly show that a “Soviet special forces soldier” could not be the “main enemy” for the half-million-strong US army.

In addition to military specialists, the USSR sent 2,000 tanks, 700 light and maneuverable aircraft, 7,000 mortars and guns, more than a hundred helicopters and much more to Vietnam. Almost the entire air defense system of the country, impeccable and impenetrable to fighters, was built by Soviet specialists using Soviet funds. “On-site training” also took place. Military schools and academies of the USSR trained Vietnamese military personnel.

The Russians also fought on the other side of the barricades. These were emigrants conscripted into the US and Australian armies. Thus, in the Brussels magazine “Sentry” in 1968, among the obituaries, you can read the following laconic lines: “Captain of the Australian Service Anatoly Danilenko († 1968, Vietnam, died a brave death in battles with the communists).”

The common name "Vietnam War" or "Vietnam War" is the Second Indochina War, in which the main belligerents were the Democratic Republic of Vietnam and the United States.
For reference: The First Indochina War was France’s war to preserve its colonies in Indochina in 1946-1954.

The Vietnam War began around 1961 and ended on April 30, 1975. In Vietnam itself, this war is called the Liberation War, and sometimes the American War. The Vietnam War is often seen as the peak of the Cold War between the Soviet bloc and China, on the one hand, and the United States and some of its allies, on the other. In America, the Vietnam War is considered the darkest spot in its history. In the history of Vietnam, this war is perhaps the most heroic and tragic page.
The Vietnam War was both a civil war between various political forces in Vietnam and an armed struggle against American occupation.

Beginning of the Vietnam War

After 1955, France withdraws from Vietnam as a colonial power. Half of the country north of the 17th parallel, or the Democratic Republic of Vietnam, is controlled by the Communist Party of Vietnam, the southern half, or the Republic of Vietnam, is controlled by the United States of America, which rules it through puppet South Vietnamese governments.

In 1956, in accordance with the Geneva Agreements on Vietnam, a referendum on the reunification of the country was to be held in the country, which subsequently provided for presidential elections throughout Vietnam. However, South Vietnamese President Ngo Dinh Diem refused to hold a referendum in the South. Then Ho Chi Minh creates the National Liberation Front of South Vietnam (NSLF) in the South, which begins a guerrilla war with the goal of overthrowing Ngo Dinh Diem and holding general elections. The Americans called the NLF, as well as the government of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam, the Viet Cong. The word "Vietcong" has Chinese roots (viet cong chan) and is translated as "Vietnamese communist". The United States provides assistance to South Vietnam and is increasingly drawn into the war. In the early 60s, they introduced their contingents into South Vietnam, increasing their numbers every year.

On August 2, 1964, a new stage of the Vietnam War began. On this day, the US Navy destroyer USS Maddox approached the coast of North Vietnam and was allegedly attacked by North Vietnamese torpedo boats. It is still unclear whether there was an attack or not. The Americans provided no evidence of damage to the aircraft carrier from attacks by Vietnamese boats.
In response, US President L. Johnson ordered the American air force to strike North Vietnamese naval installations. Then other objects of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam were also bombed. Thus the war spread to North Vietnam. From this period, the USSR became involved in the war in the form of providing military-technical assistance to the DRV.

The US allies in the Vietnam War were the South Vietnamese Army (ARVN, that is, Army of the Republic of VietNam), contingents of Australia, New Zealand and South Korea. Some South Korean units (for example, the Blue Dragon brigade) turned out to be the most cruel towards the local population in the second half of the 60s.

On the other hand, only the North Vietnamese army of the VNA (Vietnamese People's Army) and the NLF fought. On the territory of North Vietnam there were military specialists from Ho Chi Minh's allies - the USSR and China, who did not directly participate in the battles, with the exception of the defense of DRV facilities from US military air raids at the initial stage of the war.

Chronicle

Local hostilities between the NLF and the US Army occurred every day. Major military operations, in which a large number of personnel, weapons and military equipment were involved, were as follows.

In October 1965, the US Army launched a major offensive in South Vietnam against the NLF units. 200 thousand American soldiers, 500 thousand soldiers of the South Vietnamese army, 28 thousand soldiers of the US allies were involved. Supported by 2,300 aircraft and helicopters, 1,400 tanks and 1,200 guns, the offensive developed from the coast to the border with Laos and Cambodia and from Saigon to the Cambodian border. The Americans failed to defeat the main forces of the NLF and retain the territories captured during the offensive.
The next major offensive began in the spring of 1966. 250 thousand American soldiers already took part in it. This offensive also did not bring significant results.
The autumn offensive of 1966 was even larger and was carried out north of Saigon. 410 thousand American, 500 thousand South Vietnamese and 54 thousand allied soldiers took part in it. They were supported by 430 aircraft and helicopters, 2,300 large-caliber guns and 3,300 tanks and armored personnel carriers. On the other side, there were 160 thousand fighters of the National Front of South Ossetia and 90 thousand soldiers of the VNA. No more than 70 thousand American soldiers and officers participated directly in the battles, since the rest served in logistics units. The American army and its allies pushed part of the NLF forces to the border with Cambodia, but most of the Viet Cong managed to avoid defeat.
Similar offensives in 1967 did not lead to decisive results.
1968 was a turning point in the Vietnam War. At the beginning of 1968, the NLF carried out a short-term Tet operation, capturing a number of important objects. Fighting even took place near the US Embassy in Saigon. During this operation, the NLF forces suffered heavy losses and, from 1969 to the end of 1971, switched to limited guerrilla warfare tactics. In April 1968, due to significant losses of American aviation over North Vietnam, US President L. Johnson ordered a cessation of bombing, except for a 200-mile zone in the south of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam. President R. Nixon set a course for the “Vietnamization” of the war, that is, the gradual withdrawal of American units and a sharp increase in the combat capability of the South Vietnamese army.
On March 30, 1972, the VNA, with the support of the National Liberation Front, launched a large-scale offensive, occupying the capital of Quang Tri province, bordering North Vietnam. In response, the United States resumed massive bombing of North Vietnamese territory. In September 1972, South Vietnamese troops managed to recapture Quang Tri. The bombing of North Vietnam ceased at the end of October, but resumed in December and continued for twelve days almost until the signing of the Paris Peace Accords in January 1973.

Ending

On January 27, 1973, the Paris Agreements on a ceasefire in Vietnam were signed. In March 1973, the United States finally withdrew its troops from South Vietnam, with the exception of 20 thousand military advisers. America continued to provide enormous military, economic and political assistance to the South Vietnamese government.

Vietnamese and Russian Vietnam War veterans

In April 1975, as a result of the lightning-fast Operation Ho Chi Minh, North Vietnamese troops under the command of the legendary General Vo Nguyen Zap defeated the demoralized South Vietnamese army left without allies and captured all of South Vietnam.

In general, the world community's assessment of the actions of the South Vietnamese Army (ARVN) and the US Army in South Vietnam was sharply negative (the ARVN was superior to the Americans in cruelty). Massive anti-war demonstrations were held in Western countries, including the United States. The American media in the 70s were no longer on the side of their government and often showed the senselessness of the war. Because of this, many conscripts sought to avoid service and deployment to Vietnam.

Public protests to a certain extent influenced the position of President Nixon, who decided to withdraw troops from Vietnam, but the main factor was the military-political futility of further continuing the war. Nixon and Secretary of State Kissinger came to the conclusion that it was impossible to win the Vietnam War, but at the same time they “turned the dial” on the Democratic Congress, which formally decided to withdraw troops.

Vietnam War figures

Total US combat losses - 47,378 people, non-combat - 10,799. Wounded - 153,303, missing - 2,300.
About 5 thousand US Air Force aircraft were shot down.

Losses of the army of the puppet Republic of Vietnam (US ally) - 254 thousand people.
Combat losses of the Vietnamese People's Army and partisans of the National Liberation Front of South Vietnam - more than 1 million 100 thousand people.
Vietnamese civilian casualties - more than 3 million people.
14 million tons of explosives were detonated, which is several times more than during World War II in all theaters of combat.
US financial costs - 350 billion dollars (in current equivalent - more than 1 trillion dollars).
Military-economic assistance to the DRV from China ranged from $14 billion to $21 billion, from the USSR - from $8 billion to $15 billion. There was also assistance from Eastern European countries, which at that time were part of the Soviet bloc.

Political and economic reasons

On the US side, the main stakeholder in the war was US arms manufacturing corporations. Despite the fact that the Vietnam War is considered a local conflict, a lot of ammunition was used in it, for example, 14 million tons of explosives were detonated, which is several times more than during the Second World War in all theaters of combat. During the Vietnam War, the profits of US military corporations amounted to many billions of dollars. It may seem paradoxical, but US military corporations, in general, were not interested in a quick victory for the American army in Vietnam.
Indirect confirmation of the negative role of large US corporations in all politics are statements in 2007. one of the Republican presidential candidates, Ron Paul, who stated the following: “We are moving towards a softer fascism, not a Hitler type - expressed in the loss of civil liberties, when corporations run everything and ... the government lies in the same bed with big business.” .
Ordinary Americans initially believed in the justice of America's participation in the war, considering it a fight for democracy. As a result, several million Vietnamese and 57 thousand Americans died, and millions of hectares of land were scorched by American napalm.
The political necessity of US participation in the Vietnam War was explained by the American administration to the public of its country by the fact that a “falling domino effect” would supposedly occur and after Ho Chi Minh’s conquest of South Vietnam, all the countries of Southeast Asia would come under communist control one after another. Most likely, the United States was planning a “reverse domino.” Thus, they built a nuclear reactor in Dalat for the Ngo Dinh Diem regime to carry out research work, built capital military airfields, and introduced their people into various political movements in countries neighboring Vietnam.
The USSR provided assistance to the Democratic Republic of Vietnam with weapons, fuel, and military advisers, especially in the field of air defense due to the fact that the confrontation with America was carried out completely, on all continents. China also provided assistance to the DRV, fearing the strengthening of the United States at its southern borders. Despite the fact that the USSR and China were almost enemies at that time, Ho Chi Minh managed to receive help from both of them, showing his political skill. Ho Chi Minh and his entourage independently developed a strategy for waging war. Soviet specialists provided assistance only at the technical and educational levels.
There was no clear front in the Vietnam War: the South Vietnamese and the United States did not dare to attack North Vietnam, since this would cause the dispatch of Chinese military contingents to Vietnam, and on the part of the USSR, the adoption of other military measures against the United States. The DRV front was not needed, because the NLF, controlled by the North, actually surrounded the cities of South Vietnam and at one favorable moment could take possession of them. Despite the partisan nature of the war, all types of weapons were used in it, except nuclear ones. The fighting took place on land, in the air and at sea. Military reconnaissance of both sides worked intensively, sabotage attacks were carried out, and troops landed. The ships of the US 7th Fleet controlled the entire coast of Vietnam and mined the fairways. A clear front also existed, but not for long - in 1975, when the DRV army launched an offensive in the South.

Direct combat between the US and USSR militaries in Vietnam

During the Vietnam War, there were isolated episodes of direct conflict between the USA and the USSR, as well as the death of civilians from the USSR. Here are some of them, published in the Russian media at different times, based on interviews with direct participants in the hostilities.

The first battles in the skies of North Vietnam using surface-to-air missiles against US aircraft that bombed without declaring war were carried out by Soviet military specialists.

In 1966, the Pentagon, with the approval of the US President and Congress, authorized the commanders of carrier strike groups (AUG) to destroy Soviet submarines detected within a radius of one hundred miles in peacetime. In 1968, the Soviet nuclear submarine K-10 in the South China Sea off the coast of Vietnam for 13 hours, unnoticed at a depth of 50 meters, followed under the bottom of the aircraft carrier Enterprise and practiced simulated attacks on it with torpedoes and cruise missiles, at risk of destruction. Enterprise was the largest aircraft carrier in the US Navy and carried the most aircraft to bomb North Vietnam. Correspondent N. Cherkashin wrote in detail about this episode of the war in April 2007.

During the war, radio intelligence ships of the USSR Pacific Fleet actively operated in the South China Sea. There were two incidents with them. In 1969, in the area south of Saigon, the Hydrophone ship was fired upon by South Vietnamese (US ally) patrol boats. A fire broke out and some of the equipment failed.
In another episode, the Peleng ship was attacked by American bombers. Bombs were dropped along the bow and stern of the ship. There were no casualties or destruction.

On June 2, 1967, American planes fired at the motor ship "Turkestan" of the Far Eastern Shipping Company in the port of Kamfa, which was transporting various cargoes to North Vietnam. 7 people were injured, two of them died.
As a result of the competent actions of Soviet representatives of the merchant fleet in Vietnam and employees of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the Americans were proven to be guilty of the deaths of civilians. The US government has provided the families of the dead sailors with lifelong benefits.
There were cases of damage to other merchant ships.

Consequences

The greatest losses in this war were suffered by the civilian population of Vietnam, both its southern and northern parts. South Vietnam was flooded with American defoliants; in northern Vietnam, as a result of many years of bombing by American aircraft, many residents were killed and infrastructure was destroyed.

After the US withdrawal from Vietnam, many American veterans subsequently suffered from mental disorders and various types of illnesses caused by the use of dioxin contained in Agent Orange. The American media wrote about the increased suicide rate among Vietnam War veterans compared to the US average. But official data on this matter have not been published.
Representatives of the American political elite fought in Vietnam: former Secretary of State John Kerry, many senators at different times, including John McCain, presidential candidate Al Gore. At the same time, shortly after returning from Vietnam to the United States, Kerry participated in the anti-war movement.
One of the former presidents, George W. Bush, avoided Vietnam because he served in the National Guard at the time. His campaign opponents portrayed it as a way of shirking his duty. However, this biographical fact rather indirectly served him well. Some American political scientists have concluded that any participant in the Vietnam War, regardless of his qualities, has no chance of becoming president - the negative image of this war has become so entrenched in the voter.

Since the end of the war, quite a lot of films, books and other works of art have been created based on it, most of them in America.

The Vietnam War, which lasted nearly 18 years, was fought primarily between North Vietnamese forces and the South Vietnamese army, supported by American forces. In fact, this confrontation was part of the Cold War between the United States on the one hand and the Soviet Union and China, which supported the communist government of North Vietnam, on the other.

After the surrender of Japan, which occupied Vietnam during World War II, the confrontation practically did not stop. Ho Chi Minh, a prominent figure in the Comintern, led the movement for a unified communist Vietnam in 1941, becoming the leader of the military-political organization Viet Minh, which aimed to fight for the country's independence from foreign domination. He was essentially a dictator until the late 1950s, and remained a figurehead until his death in 1969. Ho Chi Minh became a popular "icon" of the new left around the world, despite the totalitarian dictatorship and the extermination of tens of thousands of people.

Prerequisites

During World War II, the Japanese occupied Vietnam, which was part of a French colony called Indochina. After the defeat of Japan, a certain power vacuum arose, which the communists took advantage of to declare the independence of Vietnam in 1945. Not a single nation recognized the new regime, and France soon sent troops into the country, which caused the outbreak of war.

Beginning in 1952, US President Truman actively promoted the domino theory, which argued that communism was ideologically inevitable towards world domination, so a communist regime would cause a chain reaction in neighboring states, ultimately threatening the United States. The metaphor of falling dominoes linked complex processes in remote regions to US national security. All five American governments that participated in the Vietnam War, despite some nuances, followed the domino theory and a policy of containment.

Truman declared Indochina a key region. If the region falls under communist control, then all of Southeast Asia and the Middle East will follow. This will jeopardize the security of the interests of Western Europe and the United States in the Far East. Therefore, a Viet Minh victory in Indochina must be prevented in any case. The prospects for success and subsequent costs of participating in the US were not in doubt.

The United States supported the French and by 1953, 80% of the material resources used by the pro-French puppet regime to conduct military operations were supplied by the Americans. However, from the beginning of the 50s, the northerners also began to receive help from the PRC.

Despite their technical superiority, the French were defeated at the Battle of Dien Bien Phu in the spring of 1954, which marked the final stage of the confrontation. According to rough estimates, about half a million Vietnamese died during this conflict, called the Indochina War of 1946-1954.

The result of peace negotiations in Geneva in the summer of that year was the creation of four independent countries on the territory of the former French colony - Cambodia, Laos, North Vietnam and South Vietnam. Ho Chi Minh and the Communist Party ruled North Vietnam, while South Vietnam was ruled by a pro-Western government led by Emperor Bao Dai. Neither side recognized the legitimacy of the other - the division was regarded as temporary.

In 1955, Ngo Dinh Diem, supported by the Americans, became the leader of South Vietnam. Based on the results of the referendum, it was announced that the inhabitants of the country abandoned the monarchy in favor of a republic. Emperor Bao Dai was deposed and Ngo Dinh Diem became President of the Republic of Vietnam.

British diplomacy proposed a North-South plebiscite to determine the future of a united Vietnam. However, South Vietnam opposed such a proposal, arguing that free elections were impossible in the communist North.

There is an opinion that the United States was allegedly ready to accept free elections and a reunified Vietnam, even under communist rule, as long as its foreign policy was hostile to China.

Terror in North and South Vietnam

In 1953, the North Vietnamese communists embarked on a ruthless land reform, during which landowners, dissidents and French collaborators were massacred. Information about those killed as a result of the repressions varies significantly - from 50 thousand to 100 thousand people, some sources put the figure at 200 thousand, arguing that the real numbers are even higher, since family members of victims of terror died of hunger in the policy of isolation. As a result of the reform, landowners were eliminated as a class, and their lands were distributed among the peasants.

By the end of the 50s, it became clear that peaceful attempts to unite the North and South had reached a dead end. The Northern government supported the uprising that broke out in 1959, organized by South Vietnamese communists. However, some American sources claim that in fact the organizers of the rebellion were deported northerners who entered South Vietnam along the Ho Chi Minh Trail, and not the local population.

By 1960, disparate groups fighting against the regime of Ngo Dinh Diem united into a single organization, which in the West received the name Viet Cong (short for “Vietnamese communist”).

The main direction of the new organization was terror against officials and civilians who expressed open support for the pro-American regime. The South Vietnamese partisans, who received full support from the northern communists, acted more and more confidently and successfully every day. In response to this, in 1961, the United States introduced its first regular military units into South Vietnam. In addition, American military advisers and instructors provided assistance to Zien's army, helping in planning combat operations and training personnel.

Conflict escalation

The Kennedy administration in November 1963 decided to overthrow by a coalition of generals the weak South Vietnamese leader Ngo Dinh Diem, who was not popular among the people and failed to organize a proper rebuff to the communists. President Nixon later described the decision as a catastrophic betrayal of an ally that contributed to the eventual collapse of South Vietnam.

There was no proper consensus among the group of generals that came to power, which led to a series of coups in the following months. The country was in a fever of political instability, which the Viet Cong immediately took advantage of, gradually expanding their control over new areas of South Vietnam. For several years, Northern Vietnam transferred military units to American-controlled territories, and by the beginning of open confrontation with the United States in 1964, the number of North Vietnamese troops in the South was about 24 thousand people. The number of American soldiers by that time was just over 23 thousand people.

In August 1964, a collision occurred off the coast of North Vietnam between the American destroyer Maddox and border torpedo boats. A couple of days later there was another clash. The Tonkin incidents (named after the gulf where the conflict took place) became the reason for the United States to launch a military campaign against North Vietnam. The American Congress adopted a resolution authorizing President Johnson, who replaced John F. Kennedy, who was shot several months ago, in this post, to use force.

Bombardment

The National Security Council recommended a three-phase escalating bombing campaign against North Vietnam. The bombings lasted a total of three years and were intended to force the North to stop supporting the Viet Cong, threatening to destroy the country's air defenses and infrastructure, and also provide moral support to South Vietnam.

However, the Americans did not limit themselves to bombing North Vietnam. To destroy the Ho Chi Minh Trail, which passed through the territory of Laos and Cambodia, through which military aid for the Viet Cong was supplied to South Vietnam, bombing of these states was organized.

Despite the fact that during the entire period of air strikes more than 1 million tons of bombs were dropped on the territory of North Vietnam, and more than 2 million tons on Laos, the Americans failed to achieve their goals. On the contrary, such US tactics helped to unite the inhabitants of the North, who, over many years of bombing, had to switch to an almost underground way of life.

Chemical attacks

Since the 1950s, US military laboratories have experimented with herbicides that were developed as chemical weapons during World War II and then used to test their effects on nature for military purposes. Since 1959, these products have been tested in South Vietnam. The tests were successful, and US President Kennedy made the substances a central component of an innovative counterinsurgency strategy in 1961, personally ordering their use in Vietnam. At the same time, the US government took advantage of a flaw in the Geneva Convention of 1925, which prohibited the use of chemicals against people, but not against plants.

In July 1961, the first shipments of chemicals arrived under code names in South Vietnam. In January 1962, Operation Farm Lady began: the US Air Force systematically sprayed herbicides in Vietnam and the border areas of Laos and Cambodia. In this way they cultivated the jungle and destroyed crops in order to deprive the enemy of protection, ambush, food and population support. Under Johnson, the campaign became the largest chemical warfare program in history. Before 1971, the US sprayed about 20 million gallons (80 million liters) of herbicides contaminated with dioxins.

Ground War

Since the bombing did not bring the expected effect, a decision was made to deploy ground combat operations. The US generals chose the tactic of wear and tear - the physical destruction of as many enemy troops as possible with the least possible losses. It was assumed that the Americans should protect their own military bases, control border areas, catching and destroying enemy soldiers.

The goal of the regular American units was not to conquer territory, but to inflict maximum damage on the enemy to prevent possible attacks. In practice, it looked like this: a small airmobile group was sent to the area of ​​operation by helicopter. After detecting the enemy, this kind of “bait” immediately recorded its location and called for air support, which carried out a dense bombardment of the specified area.

These tactics led to numerous deaths of civilians in the cleared areas and a mass exodus of survivors, greatly complicating subsequent “pacification.”

It was not possible to objectively assess the effectiveness of the chosen strategy, since the Vietnamese, whenever possible, took the bodies of their dead, and the Americans were very reluctant to go into the jungle to count enemy corpses. Killing civilians to increase reporting data has become common practice among American soldiers.

The main difference between the Vietnam War can be considered the small number of large-scale battles. Having suffered several major defeats from technically better-equipped opponents, the Viet Cong chose guerrilla warfare tactics, moving at night or during the rainy season, when US aircraft could not inflict serious damage on them. Using the vast network of tunnels as weapons depots and escape routes, engaging only in close combat, the Vietnamese guerrillas forced the Americans to increasingly spread out their forces in an attempt to control the situation. By 1968, the number of American soldiers in Vietnam exceeded 500 thousand people.

US soldiers, unfamiliar with the country's language and culture, could hardly distinguish peasants from partisans. By destroying both for reinsurance, they created a negative image of the aggressor among the civilian population, thereby playing into the hands of the partisans. Although the US Army and South Vietnamese government forces had a 5-fold numerical advantage, their opponents were able to maintain a constant flow of weapons and well-trained fighters who were also much more motivated.

Government forces were rarely able to maintain long-term control over cleared areas, while the Americans were forced to use large numbers of their troops to guard their own military bases and weapons stored there, as they were constantly under attack. In essence, the partisans managed to impose their tactics on the enemy: they were the ones who decided where and when the battle would take place, and how long it would last.

Tet Offensive

The massive Viet Cong offensive on January 30, 1968 came as a surprise to the Americans and government forces. This date coincided with the celebration of the traditional Vietnamese New Year, during which both sides had previously declared an unspoken truce.

The attack was carried out in hundreds of places simultaneously, and more than 80 thousand Viet Cong took part in the operation. Thanks to the effect of surprise, the attackers managed to capture some objects, but the Americans and their allies quickly recovered from the shock and pushed the North Vietnamese troops back.

During this offensive, the Viet Cong suffered huge losses (according to some sources, up to half of their personnel), from which they could not recover for several years. However, from a propaganda and political point of view, success was on the side of the attackers. The widely publicized operation showed that, despite the presence of hundreds of thousands of American soldiers, the strength and morale of the Viet Cong had not diminished at all over the long period of hostilities, contrary to the claims of the US Army leadership. The public response to this operation sharply strengthened the position of anti-war forces in the United States itself.

In April 1968, the North Vietnamese leadership decided to begin negotiations with the United States. However, Ho Chi Minh demanded the continuation of the war until final victory. He died in September 1969, and Vice President Ton Duc Thang became head of state.

"De-Americanization"

The US General Staff wanted to use the defeat of the Viet Cong to expand and consolidate the success. The generals demanded a new call for reservists and intensified bombing of the Ho Chi Minh Trail in order to further weaken the bloodless enemy. At the same time, the staff officers, taught by bitter experience, refused to outline a time frame and give any guarantees of success.

As a result, Congress demanded a re-evaluation of all US military actions in Vietnam. The Tet Offensive destroyed the hope of the citizens of the United States for a speedy end to the war and undermined the authority of President Johnson. Added to this was the enormous burden on the US state budget and economy caused by the war - for the period 1953-1975. $168 billion was spent on the Vietnam campaign.

Due to the combination of all factors, Nixon, who became US President in 1968, was forced to announce a course towards the “de-Americanization” of Vietnam. Since June 1969, a gradual withdrawal of American troops from South Vietnam began - approximately 50 thousand people every six months. By the beginning of 1973, their number was less than 30 thousand people.

The final stage of the war

In March 1972, the Viet Cong attacked South Vietnam from three directions simultaneously and captured five provinces within a few days. For the first time, the offensive was supported by tanks sent as military aid by the Soviet Union. South Vietnamese government forces had to focus on defending major cities, allowing the Viet Cong to capture many military bases in the Mekong Delta.

However, for Nixon, military defeat and the loss of South Vietnam were unacceptable. The United States resumed bombing of North Vietnam, which allowed the South Vietnamese to withstand the enemy onslaught. Both sides, exhausted by the continuous confrontation, increasingly began to think about a truce.

Throughout 1972, negotiations continued with varying success. North Vietnam's main goal was to enable the United States to exit the conflict without losing face. At the same time, the South Vietnamese government, on the contrary, tried with all its might to avoid this option, realizing that it was not able to independently resist the Viet Cong.

At the end of January 1973, the Paris Peace Agreement was signed, according to which American troops left the country. Fulfilling the terms of the agreement, by the end of March of the same year, the United States completed the withdrawal of its troops from the territory of South Vietnam.

Deprived of American support, the South Vietnamese army was demoralized. More and more of the country's territory de facto fell under the rule of the northerners. Convinced that the United States did not intend to resume its participation in the war, in early March 1975, North Vietnamese troops launched a large-scale offensive. As a result of a two-month campaign, the North occupied most of South Vietnam. On April 30, 1975, the communists raised the banner over the Independence Palace in Saigon - the war ended with the complete victory of North Vietnam.

Participation of other countries

In addition to the Americans, South Korea, Australia, New Zealand and Thailand provided military assistance to the government forces of South Vietnam. The Philippines, Taiwan, Japan and Belgium did not formally participate in the war, but provided the United States with various assistance to its allies - sending military advisers, delivering various cargo, allowing refueling of military aircraft on their territory, etc.

North Vietnam received significant military and economic support from the USSR, China and the DPRK. Soviet anti-aircraft gunners took direct part in the hostilities, and Chinese technical specialists ensured the construction of military facilities. The DPRK sent a squadron of fighters and air defense units to North Vietnam.

The Vietnam War lasted 20 long years. It became the most brutal and bloody military conflict of the Cold War, involving several countries of the world. Over the entire period of the armed confrontation, the small country lost almost four million civilians and about one and a half million soldiers on both sides.

Prerequisites for the conflict

If we talk briefly about the Vietnam War, this conflict is called the Second Indochina War. At some point, the internal confrontation between North and South grew into a confrontation between the Western bloc SEATO, which supported the southerners, and the USSR and the PRC, which supported North Vietnam. The Vietnamese situation also affected neighboring countries - Cambodia and Laos did not escape civil war.

First, the civil war began in southern Vietnam. The prerequisites and reasons for the war in Vietnam can be called the reluctance of the country's population to live under the influence of the French. In the second half of the 19th century, Vietnam belonged to the French colonial empire.

When the First World War ended, the country experienced a growth in national self-awareness of the population, which was manifested in the organization of a large number of underground circles that championed the independence of Vietnam. At that time, several armed uprisings occurred throughout the country.

In China, the League for the Independence of Vietnam - Viet Minh - was created, uniting all those who sympathized with the idea of ​​​​liberation. Then the Viet Minh were led by Ho Chi Minh, and the League acquired a clear communist orientation.

Briefly speaking about the reasons for the war in Vietnam, they were as follows. After the end of World War II in 1954, the entire Vietnamese territory was divided along the length of the 17th parallel. At the same time, North Vietnam was controlled by the Viet Minh, and South Vietnam was under the control of the French.

The victory of the Communists in China (PRC) made the United States nervous and begin its intervention in the internal politics of Vietnam on the side of the French-controlled South. The US government, which regarded the PRC as a threat, believed that Red China would soon want to increase its influence in Vietnam, but the US could not allow this.

It was assumed that in 1956 Vietnam would unite into a single state, but the French South did not want to become under the control of the communist North, which was the main reason for the war in Vietnam.

Beginning of the war and early period

So, it was not possible to unify the country painlessly. The war in Vietnam was inevitable. The communist North decided to take over the southern part of the country by force.

The Vietnam War began with several terrorist attacks against Southern officials. And 1960 was the year of the creation of the world-famous organization Viet Cong, or the National Liberation Front of South Vietnam (NSLF), which united all the numerous groups fighting against the South.

While briefly describing the causes and results of the Vietnam War, it is impossible to omit some of the most significant events of this brutal confrontation. In 1961, the American army did not take part in the clashes, but the successful and daring actions of the Viet Cong strained the United States, which transferred the first regular army units to South Vietnam. Here they train South Vietnamese soldiers and assist them in planning attacks.

The first serious military clash occurred only in 1963, when the Viet Cong partisans defeated the South Vietnamese army at the Battle of Ap Bac. After this defeat, a political coup occurred in which the ruler of the South, Diem, was killed.

The Viet Cong strengthened their positions by transferring a significant part of their guerrillas to the southern territories. The number of American soldiers also grew. If in 1959 there were 800 soldiers, then in 1964 the war in Vietnam continued with the size of the American army in the South reaching 25,000 troops.

United States intervention

The Vietnam War continued. The fierce resistance of the North Vietnamese guerrillas was aided by the country's geographic and climatic features. Dense jungles, mountainous terrain, alternating seasons of rain and incredible heat significantly complicated the actions of American soldiers and made it easier for the Viet Cong guerrillas, for whom these natural disasters were familiar.

Vietnam War 1965-1974 was already carried out with the full-scale intervention of the US Army. At the beginning of 1965, in February, the Viet Cong attacked American military targets. After this brazen act, American President Lyndon Johnson announced his readiness to launch a retaliatory strike, which was carried out during Operation Burning Spear - a brutal carpet bombing of Vietnamese territory by American aircraft.

Later, in March 1965, the US Army carried out another bombing operation, the largest since World War II, called “Rolling Thunder.” At this time, the size of the American army grew to 180,000 troops. But this is not the limit. Over the next three years there were already about 540,000.

But the first battle in which US Army soldiers entered took place in August 1965. Operation Starlight ended in complete victory for the Americans, who killed approximately 600 Viet Cong.

After this, the American army decided to use the “search and destroy” strategy, when US soldiers considered their main task to be the detection of partisans and their complete destruction.

Frequent forced military clashes with the Viet Cong in the mountainous territories of South Vietnam exhausted American soldiers. In 1967, at the Battle of Dacto, the US Marines and the 173rd Airborne Brigade suffered terrible losses, although they managed to hold off the guerrillas and prevent the capture of the city.

Between 1953 and 1975, the United States spent a fabulous amount of money on the Vietnam War - $168 million. This has led to America's massive federal budget deficit.

Tet battle

During the Vietnam War, American troops were recruited entirely through volunteers and a limited draft. President L. Johnson refused the partial mobilization and call-up of reservists, so by 1967 the human reserves of the American army were exhausted.

Meanwhile, the Vietnam War continued. In mid-1967, the military leadership of North Vietnam began planning a large-scale offensive in the south in order to turn the tide of hostilities. The Viet Cong wanted to create the preconditions for the Americans to begin to withdraw their troops from Vietnam and overthrow the government of Nguyen Van Thieu.

The United States was aware of these preparations, but the Viet Cong offensive came as a complete surprise to them. The northern army and guerrillas went on the offensive on Tet Day (Vietnamese New Year), when any military action is prohibited.

On January 31, 1968, the North Vietnamese army launched massive attacks throughout the South, including major cities. Many attacks were repulsed, but the South lost the city of Hue. Only in March was this offensive stopped.

During the 45 days of the North's offensive, the Americans lost 150,000 soldiers, more than 2,000 helicopters and airplanes, more than 5,000 pieces of military equipment and about 200 ships.

At the same time, America was waging an air war against the DRV (Democratic Republic of Vietnam). About a thousand aircraft took part in the carpet bombings, which during the period from 1964 to 1973. flew more than 2 million combat missions and dropped approximately 8 million bombs in Vietnam.

But the American soldiers miscalculated here too. North Vietnam evacuated its population from all major cities, hiding people in the mountains and jungles. The Soviet Union supplied the northerners with supersonic fighters, air defense systems, radio equipment and helped them master it all. Thanks to this, the Vietnamese managed to destroy about 4,000 US aircraft throughout the years of the conflict.

The battle of Hue, when the South Vietnamese army wanted to recapture the city, was the bloodiest in the entire history of this war.

The Tet Offensive caused a wave of protests among the US population against the Vietnam War. Then many began to consider it senseless and cruel. No one expected that the Vietnamese communist army would be able to organize an operation of such a scale.

US troop withdrawal

In November 1968, after the newly elected US President R. Nixon took office, who during the election race promised America would end the war with Vietnam, there was hope that the Americans would eventually remove their troops from Indochina.

The US war in Vietnam was a shameful stain on America's reputation. In 1969, at the People's Congress of South Vietnam, the proclamation of a republic (RSV) was announced. The guerrillas became the People's Armed Forces (PAFSE). This outcome forced the US government to sit down at the negotiating table and stop the bombing.

America, under the Nixon presidency, gradually reduced its presence in the Vietnam War, and when 1971 began, more than 200,000 troops were withdrawn from South Vietnam. Saigon's army, on the contrary, was increased to 1,100 thousand soldiers. Almost all of the Americans' more or less heavy weapons were left in South Vietnam.

At the beginning of 1973, namely on January 27, the Paris Agreement was concluded to end the war in Vietnam. The United States ordered the complete removal of its military bases from the designated territories and the withdrawal of both troops and military personnel. In addition, a complete exchange of prisoners of war was to take place.

The final stage of the war

For the United States, the result of the Vietnam War after the Paris Agreement was the 10,000 advisers left to the southerners and 4 billion US dollars in financial support provided throughout 1974 and 1975.

Between 1973 and 1974 The Popular Liberation Front resumed hostilities with renewed vigor. The southerners, who had suffered serious losses in the spring of 1975, could only defend Saigon. It was all over in April 1975 after Operation Ho Chi Minh. Deprived of American support, the army of the South was defeated. In 1976, both parts of Vietnam were united to form the Socialist Republic of Vietnam.

Participation in the conflict between the USSR and China

Military, political and economic assistance from the USSR to North Vietnam played a significant role in the outcome of the war. Supplies from the Soviet Union took place through the port of Haiphong, which transported equipment and ammunition, tanks and heavy weapons to the Viet Cong. Experienced Soviet military specialists who trained the Viet Cong were actively involved as consultants.

China was also interested and helped the northerners by supplying food, weapons, and trucks. In addition, Chinese troops numbering up to 50 thousand people were sent to North Vietnam to restore roads, both automobile and railway.

Consequences of the Vietnam War

The years of bloody war in Vietnam claimed millions of lives, most of which were civilians in North and South Vietnam. The environment has also suffered greatly. The south of the country was thickly flooded with American defoliants, as a result many trees died. The North, after many years of US bombing, was in ruins, and napalm burned out a significant part of the Vietnamese jungle.

During the war, chemical weapons were used, which could not but affect the environmental situation. After the withdrawal of US troops, American veterans of this terrible war suffered from mental disorders and many different diseases that were caused by the use of dioxin, which is part of Agent orange. There were a huge number of suicides among American veterans, although official data on this was never published.

Speaking about the causes and results of the war in Vietnam, it is necessary to note another sad fact. Many representatives of the American political elite participated in this conflict, but this fact only causes negative emotions among the population of the United States.

Research conducted by political scientists at that time showed that a participant in the Vietnam conflict had no chance of becoming president of the United States, since the average voter of those times was strongly opposed to the Vietnam War.

War crimes

Results of the Vietnam War 1965-1974. disappointing. The cruelty of this worldwide massacre is undeniable. Among the war crimes of the Vietnam conflict are the following:

Among others, there were other reasons for the Vietnam War of 1965-1974. The initiator of the war was the United States with its desire to subjugate the world. During the conflict, about 14 million tons of various explosives were detonated on Vietnamese territory - more than during the two previous world wars.

The first of the main reasons was to prevent the spread of communist ideology in the world. And the second is, of course, money. Several large corporations in the United States made a good fortune from the sale of weapons, but for ordinary citizens the official reason given for America's involvement in the war in Indochina was the need to spread global democracy.

Strategic acquisitions

Below is a brief summary of the results of the Vietnam War from the point of view of strategic acquisitions. During the long war, the Americans had to create a powerful structure for the maintenance and repair of military equipment. Repair complexes were located in South Korea, Taiwan, Okinawa and Honshu. The Sagama Tank Repair Plant alone saved the US Treasury approximately $18 million.

All this could allow the American army to enter into any military conflict in the Asia-Pacific region without worrying about the safety of military equipment, which could be restored and used again in battle in a short time.

Vietnam-China War

Some historians believe that this war was started by the Chinese in order to remove parts of the Vietnamese army from Chinese-controlled Kampuchea, while simultaneously punishing the Vietnamese for interfering in Chinese politics in Southeast Asia. In addition, China, which was in confrontation with the Union, needed a reason to abandon the 1950 agreement on cooperation with the USSR, signed in 1950. And they succeeded. In April 1979, the agreement was terminated.

The war between China and Vietnam began in 1979 and lasted only a month. On March 2, the Soviet leadership announced its readiness to intervene in the conflict on the side of Vietnam, having previously demonstrated military power in exercises near the Chinese border. At this time, the Chinese embassy was expelled from Moscow and sent home by train. During this trip, Chinese diplomats witnessed the transfer of Soviet troops towards the Far East and Mongolia.

The USSR openly supported Vietnam, and China, led by Deng Xiaoping, sharply curtailed the war, never deciding on a full-scale conflict with Vietnam, behind which stood the Soviet Union.

Speaking briefly about the causes and results of the Vietnam War, we can conclude that no goals can justify the senseless bloodshed of innocents, especially if the war was designed for a handful of rich people who want to line their pockets even tighter.