Creation of the Papal State. How did the Papal States come into being? History of the Papal States

An overview of the history of the Papal States, the first Papal State that existed from 752 to 1870.

Let us remember that the Papal States ceased to exist due to the unification of Italy. After which came the period of self-reclusion of the Popes (1870-1929), when they were deprived of their state.

The Papal States were replaced in 1929 by the current Papal State, the Vatican City State.

On the map: The territory of the Papal States that had existed for just over twenty years under the reign of Emperor Charlemagne - approx. 776 years.

Then all the lands around the Papal States had already been conquered by the Franks, and the region felt comfortable

The father of Charlemagne and the ruler of the Franks, Pepin the Short, in 754 gave the Popes the region around Rome, which later became known as the Ecclesiastical Region (here it is written as État de l "Église (Ecclesiastical State, French).

By taking the area around Rome under his protection and transferring it to the Popes, Pepin the Short thus freed the Popes from dependence on and possible complete subjugation by the Lombard kings who laid claim to Rome.

At the same time, the Popes actually began to rule Rome as secular rulers already several decades before the gift of Pepin, but until 751, Rome and the territory around it were formally part of the Ravenna Exarchate (a Byzantine province with its capital in Ravenna, on the Adriatic coast of the Italian peninsula, which arose in 540, after Byzantium managed, as it later turned out, to restore its control over a large part of Italy for two whole centuries, after the Byzantines defeated the German tribe of the Ostrogoths in a war, which in turn overthrew the last Western Roman emperor Romulus in 476 and thus the power of ancient Rome ceased to exist).

But in 751, the German tribe of the Lombards also conquered the Ravenna exarchate (note that the Lombards had subjugated part of Italy two hundred years earlier, having founded their kingdom here and steadily expanding). Thus, Byzantium lost its lands in Italy, and Rome could again fall under the influence of the barbarians, as it was under the Ostrogoths. Although, we emphasize that by that time the Lombards were for the most part Christians, albeit Arians.

The Papacy was saved from the Lombard victory over Rome by Charlemagne, who confirmed the sovereignty of the Popes over Rome. Charlemagne conquered the kingdom of the Lombards.

Also on the map in the neighborhood of the Ecclesiastical Region are Lombardy (in other words, the former state of the Lombards), conquered by Charlemagne in 774 (now the name is written as Lombardia) and the Duchy of Spoleto; initially Spoleto was ruled by representatives of the Lombard nobility, subordinate to the Lombard king, and then, after Charlemagne’s conquest of Longobardia, Spoleto was first abolished and then restored and began to serve as a buffer zone separating the state of the Franks from Byzantium and the Arabs, while rulers began to rule in Spoleto from francs;

The map also shows the possessions of the Dukes of Benevento. These are already possessions beyond the borders of the Frankish state itself. Its rulers were representatives of the former Lombard military leaders, who became vassals of the Frankish state from the end of the 8th century.

Legal aspect

emergence of the Papal States:

During the years of Rome being part of the Ravenna Exarchate (i.e. being part of the Byzantine province in Italy), which, as it later turned out, preceded the emergence of the Papal States, the population of Rome for the first time elected the Pope as high priest (Pontifex Maximus). This happened during the pontificate of Pope Gregory I (years of his pontificate: 590-604).

At the same time, the Popes were then considered Roman citizens and administered the Patrimonium Sancti Petri (lit. "property of St. Peter", lands and properties in and around Rome, as well as estates in other parts of Italy and the Byzantine Empire) as private but non-hereditary owners, whose powers had to be confirmed by the Roman (i.e. Byzantine) emperor.

The status of the Patrimonium Sancti Petri differed from the status of the state lands of the Roman (Byzantine) Empire, i.e. lands Patrimonium Publicum, however, the person who transferred the rights to the Popes, and who could revoke them back, was the Roman Emperor.

“Under Pope Zacharias, the Lombards eliminated Byzantine rule in Italy and tried to unite the peninsula into a single Arian Christian feudal state. The pope himself, convinced that he had nowhere to wait for help, made an attempt to coexist with the Lombards. The modus vivendi that developed between the Lombard royal court in Pavia and the popes could not turn into a closer union precisely because, with the establishment of the feudal political unity of Italy within the framework of the Lombard kingdom, the pope would only become the leader of this national church. To eliminate this danger, the pope established increasingly closer ties with the Frankish church.

(Shortly after the fall of the Ravenna Exarchate under the onslaught of the Lombards) in 754 and 756, the ruler of the Franks, Pepin Cortius, undertook a successful military campaign against the Lombards. The territories captured from them: the Roman Duchy (in the narrower sense of Patrimonium), Romagna (exarchate) with 22 cities and Pentapolis (i.e. Pentatepolis, a duchy centered in Rimini) - he presented to the pope. Pepin rewrote and included in the register all the settlements and cities given to the pope (“Peter”), and placed the keys to them on the tomb of St. Peter. Pepin presented his gift as a Roman patrician, a title given to him by the Pope, and thereby he became the actual overlord of the Pope (this title was previously held by the Exarch of Ravenna).

Consequently, the Pope, with the help of the Franks, created the Papal State, while at the same time Pepin, with the assistance of the Pope, formed the first hereditary feudal Christian monarchy in Europe. At the same time, the Pope asked for political help from the Frankish king not on his own behalf, but on behalf of St. Peter, and the Frankish king transferred the above-mentioned possessions not to the Pope, but to St. Peter.

The Lateran Council of 769 made fundamental decisions regarding the rules of papal elections: among other things, the canonically elected Pope was approved by the people of Rome with their verbal approval.

The barbarians devastated Rome twice more, until Pepin's son Charlemagne in 774 finally occupied the kingdom of the Lombards and, as king of Italy and patrician of Rome, strengthened Pepin's gift. At one time, Byzantium and the Exarch of Ravenna demanded that they be approached with a request for approval even before the consecration of each new Pope. However, Pope Leo III not only, together with the Roman voters, swore an oath of allegiance to the Frankish king, but also at the same time recognized Charles as his overlord,” writes Jene Gergely in the book “History of the Papacy” (1981).

Why

Papal region

arose exactly

in Rome and around it

The emergence of the Papal States comes from the so-called gift of the Frankish ruler Pepin the Short (reigned: 741-768), then confirmed by his son Charlemagne (reigned: 768-814) - a gift to the Papacy of the city of Rome and the territories around it. At the same time, at present, historians do not confirm the fact that such a gift took place more than three hundred years earlier: under the Roman emperor Constantine the Great (reigned: 306-337), the so-called. “Donation of Constantine,” although Constantine the Great (the first Roman emperor to favor Christianity) made numerous donations to the Popes.

“The law of Constantine the Great of October 21, 313 stated that “those who are called clerics should be freed from any burden.” In addition to providing the clergy with personal immunity, the emperor removed the property of the church from the control of the treasury, freed existing church landholdings from state taxes, and granted the right to inherit property to non-married church members. Significant sums from the state treasury were allocated to the bishops for the organizational needs of the church and for the construction of churches. Constantine gave it to the Bishop of Rome, i.e. Pope (and the title Bishop of Rome, as is known, is still one of the main titles of the Popes) to Miltiades (reigned 313-314) a family palace that belonged to the emperor’s wife, Fausta, and stood on the Lateran Hill. This palace was the residence of the Popes until the 14th century. There, Constantine built the first cathedral in Rome, later called the Lateran Cathedral of San Giovanni. In 325, the emperor began the construction of St. Peter’s Cathedral in the Vatican over the tomb of the Apostle Peter,” recalls modern historian Ene Gergely in his book “History of the Papacy” (1981, Russian edition 1996).

But why did the Papal States have to be created in Rome?

As the general director of Vatican Radio Frederico Lombardi noted in the Russian broadcast of Vatican Radio dated 02/24/2009:

“Why is it fair that the Pope has his residence in the Vatican, that his little State is located here and not in some other place? For a very simple reason: here the Apostle Peter suffered torment, here he died, and here is his tomb, to which believers from all over the world come on pilgrimage. “Petros eni”, “Peter is here” - is inscribed on the ancient wall, which is located exactly under the central altar of the Basilica, under the grandiose dome. Therefore, the Successor of Peter is here and governs the Church from here: from the Vatican City.”

In turn, Metropolitan Tadeusz Kondrusiewicz, the then head of the Catholics of European Russia, in his address on April 19, 2005 on the occasion of the election of Pope Benedict XVI:

“The Pope - as Bishop of Rome - is the successor of St. Apostle Peter, to whom Christ said: “You are Peter, and on this rock I will build My Church, and the gates of hell will not prevail against it. And I will give you the keys of the Kingdom of Heaven; and whatever you bind on earth will be bound in heaven; and whatever you loose on earth will be loosed in heaven” (Matthew 16:18-19). These words conceal the charisma of Peter's primacy, the special calling of both himself and his successors in the Church of Christ. And although Peter denied his Teacher three times, nevertheless, Christ after the Resurrection confirmed the entrusted ministry. Jesus asked Peter three times if he loved Him? Having heard the affirmative answer three times, He appointed Peter High Priest of His flock (cf. John 21:15-17).

Fulfilling this mission, Peter, the first among the Apostles, arrived from Jerusalem to Rome and became its first bishop.

If we ignore church dogma, then answering the question of why the Bishop of Rome became the head of all Christians, we can say: this happened because Rome was the capital of the Roman Empire, the state where Christianity arose. But this capital status did not manifest itself immediately.

“Most likely, in the initial period, when Christians were still very few in number and were expecting a quick Second Coming, they could not in any way connect their fate with the Roman Empire, so the capital position of Rome could not have much significance in their eyes. But as Christianity expanded and apocalyptic sentiments faded, the importance of its capital position was gradually to increase.

During the apostolic era, the spiritual center of Christianity was Jerusalem. But soon after Nero's persecutions (64), the Jewish uprising began (66), which ended with the destruction of Jerusalem (70). The scattered Christians of the Holy City fragmented into a number of small communities, cut off from the Greco-Roman world and increasingly isolated in themselves due to adherence to the Mosaic Law and Semitic languages.

“Christianity was losing its original center in Jerusalem just at the moment when the Roman Church was mature enough to take its place,” states the French historian Louis Duchesne (lived: 1843-1922) in his book on the history of the Church...

The special status of the Roman bishops is of very early origin, but only in the 11th century. in the Latin Church the sole and exclusive right of the Bishop of Rome to the title of “Pope” was firmly established.

History sources

emergence Papal States,

used in our review

In our review of the history of the emergence of the Papal States, the following main sources were used (we classify them here according to the degree of loyalty to the Papacy, the most loyal first):

Book “I will be with you until the end of the age” (A Brief History of the Catholic Church, edition 2000 ) Catholic priest Romano Scalfi (born 1923), founder of the Russia Cristiana Foundation. Let us note that since 1957 this Milan-based foundation has been engaged in both organizing the acquaintance of Italians with the Russian church tradition and the position of the Church in Russia, and in publishing Russian-language publications on church topics.

Romano Scalfi graduated from the Pontificio Instituto Orientale and the Pontifical Gregorian University in Rome. Scalfi's book was published by the Catholic publishing house "Spiritual Library", founded as part of the Russia Cristiana Foundation under the patronage of the Apostolic (Papal) Administrator for Catholics of the Latin Rite of the European part of Russia.;

Book “How the Catholic Church created Western civilization” (2005, Russian edition 2010) contemporary American author Thomas E. Woods (born 1972).

Let us note that Woods, in the preface to the book, introduces it as follows: “My students know about the Church only that it has “decayed”; Teachers told them about this at school. For them, the history of Catholicism is a history of ignorance, repression and stagnation. They didn't bother to tell them in school that Western civilization received institutions such as higher education, philanthropy, science, basic principles of law, international law and much, much more from the Catholic Church. The West owes much more to the Catholic Church than people—including Catholics—usually realize. The Catholic Church, without exaggeration, created Western civilization."

In parentheses, we note that we cannot completely agree with such an assessment, given that the foundations of Western civilization were laid by antiquity: Ancient Greece and Rome;

Book "Essays on the History of the Roman Catholic Church" (1998). Author: Orthodox priest Vladimir Rozhkov (life: 1934-1997). Back in the Soviet years (1968-1970), he was educated at the Pontifical Gregorian University in Rome. Later, he taught at the Moscow Theological Academy (MDA). Despite the fact that his trip to study at the Vatican was sanctioned by the communist authorities, and the priest returned to Moscow in 1970, he was loyal to the Vatican.

His “Essays...” begin with remarkable words addressed to Russian MDA students: “Forget everything you read or heard from anyone about the Catholic Church, and our old textbooks also do not correspond to reality for a long time... I’m starting with the main subject that separates the Orthodox and The Catholic Church - from the question of the primacy of the Bishop of Rome (the full power over the entire Universal Church). There is no need for me to prove the issue of the primacy of the holy Apostle Peter over the other apostles. The question must be to what extent the Pope has accepted this apostolic primacy and to what extent he has actual jurisdiction over the entire Church.”

Let us note that “Essays on the History of the Roman Catholic Church” by Vladimir Rozhkov, like Scalfi’s book, was published by the Catholic publishing house “Spiritual Library”, founded as part of the Russia Cristiana Foundation under the patronage of the Apostolic (Papal) Administrator for Latin Rite Catholics of the European part of Russia;

Book “History of the Papacy” (1981, Russian edition 1996) Hungarian historian Jeno Gergely (Gergely Jenő, years of life 1944-2009). The book is distinguished by a rather critical approach to the history of the Papacy;

French documentary film "History of the French Kings (Charlemagne series), produced by Merapi Productions, 2011, Russian screening 2014). Presents the view of modern French historiography.

The desire of the Roman bishop to have exclusive powers in the Universal Church was greatly facilitated by historical circumstances, although the idea of ​​primacy was only theoretical for a long time. In Italy itself, Milan, Ravenna and Aquileia, which were the residences of emperors, competed with Rome, and even the Carthaginian Church had significant autonomy...

In the Byzantine dioceses, the mysterious identification of the Roman bishop with the Holy Apostle Peter was unacceptable, although the succession of the Roman bishop in the ministry of the Apostle Peter was not disputed.”

Emergence of the Papal States

Be that as it may, seven hundred years passed from the beginning of the Christian Church and more than three hundred years from the reign of Constantine the Great before the Ecclesiastical Region arose.

The donor, as already mentioned, was Pepin the Short, the ruler of the Franks. Moreover, the gift of lands was formalized not as a gift to the Popes, but as a gift to St. Peter. Therefore, the Church region was called Patrimonium of Peter (Patrimonium Sancti Petri), from lat. "property, allotment of St. Peter."

In his book “History of the Papacy,” Jene Gergely describes this fact as follows: “The pope asked for political assistance from the Frankish king not in his own name, but in the name of St. Peter, and the Frankish king transferred the above-mentioned possessions not to the pope, but to Peter. The pope's state power was based not on legal, but on theological postulates based on the Bible. The papal curia accepted the gift of the Franks as if all these territories, after their liberation, returned to their first owner, St. Peter."

1.1 Anticipating

emergence of the Papal States

“The pontificate of Pope Gregory I the Great (years of his pontificate: 590-604) is especially important, for it closes Christian antiquity and opens the Middle Ages. Gregory came from a noble senatorial family. A former prefect of Rome, he was imbued with a sense of the greatness of the Empire. Gregory the Great witnessed the troubles that the invasion of the Lombards (568) brought to his homeland. He wrote about this in letters (“The peasant is dying of hunger, work is interrupted, villages are empty, and the world seems to have fallen into ancient silence”). (Lombards (lat. langobardī - “long-bearded”) - a Germanic tribe that conquered Italy, but was later subjugated by the Franks under Pepin. Note website)

Pope Gregory I was more than loyal to the Byzantine Empire - he could not imagine any other type of government. The popes were then subjects of Byzantium, and Italy was ruled directly by the Ravenna exarch (representative) as the emperor's governor. (Ravenna is a city in the Italian region of Emilia-Romagna. Note: Poralostranah.ru). The Papal State was founded only in 756...

Pope Gregory the Great promoted the Christianization of the Lombards, acting through Queen Theodelinda, the wife of their king Agilulf..."

From the essays “History of the Papacy” by Jene Gergely:

“In 592, the Lombards again destroyed Rome. Pope Gregory I (590-604), having received no help from the (Byzantine representative) exarch, who had been at his residence in Ravenna since 584, himself made an attempt to eliminate the danger from the Lombards. Gregory I in 593 held successful negotiations with the Lombards and, having paid a large sum of money, concluded a truce with them. However, the pope's policy, which became more independent, ran into resistance from Byzantium (and Ravenna), resulting in a new war between the Byzantines and Lombards. After the defeat of the Byzantines in 598, with the new mediation of the pope, a truce came. These events show that during the pontificate of Gregory I, the pope's desire for political independence of the Western Church, to establish a government independent of the will of secular sovereigns, first appeared. Gregory I, in a letter to the Byzantine Emperor Mauritius, already spoke of Italy, suffering from the Lombards, as his own country. The Pope sought to become the absolute ruler of Italy, so he came into conflict with the exarch... Later, by the end of the 6th century, the Pope became the largest overlord of Italy. The Patrimonium of Peter at that time was not yet a single territory, but scattered possessions stretching from Sicily to the Adriatic Sea...

After Pope Gregory I (590-604), a number of subsequent popes were unable to continue the work of Christianizing the Germans and were even less able to free themselves from the influence of the newly empowered Byzantine superpower. The popes of the 7th century, who did not distinguish themselves in any way, found themselves between two millstones: between Caesarist Byzantium and Franco-Lombard pressure. Then the Popes changed depending on who prevailed in Rome - either political forces loyal to Byzantium, or those drawn to the Lombards

In the first half of the 8th century, the papacy still had to maneuver between the iconoclastic Byzantine Empire and the Arian Lombards.

Under the influence of iconoclast bishops from Asia Minor, the Byzantine emperor Leo III (717-741) spoke out in 727 against the veneration of icons. Pope Gregory II (pontificate: 715-731) rejected iconoclasm, but he did not want to bring this discrepancy to a rupture...

Behind the controversy was the problem of depicting Christ as a man. According to the orthodox concept, Christ was a real person and, as such, could be depicted in cult works of art. And according to the statements of the iconoclasts, Christ was only God, and not a real person, and therefore he cannot be depicted or drawn in human hypostasis (monophysitism).

The iconoclast emperor, acting in the spirit of his reforms, imposed heavy taxes on the rich papal estates. Gregory II protested sharply against the new burden; the imperial officials sent to impose fines were severely beaten by the Romans. During these critical times, the pope, along with the Roman aristocrats, had other unexpected allies: these were his former opponents, Rome’s neighbors, the Lombard dukes, the rulers of Spoleto and Benevento, who took the pope under their protection against the exarch and the Lombard king...”

And here is how the Catholic priest Romano Scalfi describes these events of this historical period in his modern “Brief History of the Catholic Church: “I will be with you until the end of time” (2000):

“In 568, under the leadership of King Albion and other military leaders, the Lombards crossed the Alps and came to Italy, occupying it almost without bloodshed. The first Lombard duchy arises in Cividale (now in the Friuli-Venezia Giulia region of Italy, on the border with Slovenia. Note site), and then various duchies are formed throughout the peninsula. The main city is Pavia, located near Milan.

The arriving tribes of nomads mixed with the local population, which was weaker militarily by this time, but had a great culture. At the same time, the Lombard conquerors turned out to be especially receptive to Roman and Christian culture. Partially the Lombards are Arians (a type of Christianity is only a mediator between God and people, and is not godlike, Note site), and partially they are also pagans...

If in the West, after the barbarian invasions, there is a process of revival, led by the Church, then in the East (i.e., in Byzantium) the Church is going through a period of decline. From the outside it is threatened by the Persians and Arabs, and from the inside the struggle continues between the adherents of the true faith and the Monophysites (the latter recognize in Christ only the divine nature, but not the human nature. Note site). In an effort to maintain unity, Byzantine emperors often intervened in matters of faith, sometimes even by force.

So, for example, St. Maximus the Confessor rebels against this. Arriving in Rome, he enlists the support of Pope Martin I, who convenes a council in defense of Maximus. However, Maximus and Martin were arrested, and Maximus dies in 662 after being tortured and tormented.

In the 7th century, the veneration of icons became widespread. At the same time, the overly “spiritual” believers in Byzantium preached the doctrine that icons should be destroyed. There is, they believe, a danger of idolatry and it is impermissible to depict Christ and saints. When Leo III the Isaurian (reign: 717-741) became the Byzantine emperor at the beginning of the 8th century, he supported the iconoclasts, that is, those who say that icons should be burned. However, the people, inspired by the Patriarch of Constantinople and the Pope, do not obey the orders of the emperor...”

A look at the Franks, Charlemagne

and the circumstances of the emergence of the Papal States

as narrated by a French documentary

"History of the French Kings (Charlemagne series,

produced by Merapi Productions studio, 2011 ., Russian show 2014)

The film presents the view of modern French historiography on these events:

“Charlemagne is considered the father of modern Europe, because... It was he who created the territorial foundations of modern Europe.

Charlemagne (right) in 806, eight years before his death (followed in 1814)

Charlemagne (right) in 806, eight years before his death (followed in 1814), and his three sons: Louis, Carloman Pepin and Charles the Young, between whom his father planned to divide his empire (another son, the most the eldest, Pepin was disinherited due to a rebellion and died in a monastery).

The background is a map of the division of the empire into three parts: bluish (Pippin’s territory), gray (Louis’ territory) and flesh-colored (Charles the Young’s territory) colors indicate the three parts of the empire that went to these three sons. Pepin received Italy, but he died while his father was still alive, in 1810. In 1811, Karl the Young, to whom his father gave France, also died. Charles the Young died childless, and his territory went to the descendants of Louis, who outlived his father by many years and to whom Germany was given.

On the Apennine Peninsula, the Papal States, located among the lands of the empire of Charlemagne, are also indicated in light brown.

Still from the French documentary “History of the French Kings (Charlemagne Series), 2011.

The huge empire was supposed to survive even after the death of its creator. Therefore, Charlemagne, concerned about the growth of German influence, in 806 intended to divide power between his three sons. In reality, the empire was divided in 943 among his grandchildren by the Treaty of Verdun.

In exchange for confirmation at Saint-Denis, Charlemagne's father Pepin the Short promised to defend the lands of the Papacy in Italy from their former owners, the Lombards.

Beginning with the Clovis era, the Franks conquered new areas located to the east of their lands. First they subjugated Alemania, i.e. territory of modern Alsace (France). Then they conquered Thuringia and partly Saxony, as well as the kingdom of the Frisians, located on the territory of modern Holland. Gradually, the former Merovingian kingdom expanded and reached the borders of modern Bavaria.

Charlemagne continued the tradition and his interests also turned to the east. He tried to capture all of Saxony, i.e. the entire territory of modern Germany to the border with Denmark. He also imposed Carolingian power in Italy in order to protect the lands of the papacy from the encroachments of Lombardy, which he eventually conquered.

Before that, Charles sent his betrothed daughter of the last Lombard king, Desiderius (after the conquest, he was forcibly tonsured a monk. Note by Portalostranah.ru) back to her father, accusing her of infertility. In fact, he just didn't like her. Despite the fact that the engagement was arranged by Charlemagne's mother Bertha Bigfoot.

Pope Adrian I rejoiced at the quarrel between the young Frankish king Charlemagne and the Lombard king Desiderius. Beginning in 773, Charles tried to conquer the lands of Lombardy. The pope, like his predecessor, turned to the tailcoats for help. The papacy was under the tutelage of the Byzantine Empire, which owned all the territories around Rome. But the Byzantine Empire no longer had the strength or means to defend Rome from the onslaught of the Lombards, while the Byzantines were still forced to fight the Muslim empire.

The new Pope Adrian I came from Roman nobles and was an educated and pious man. He hated the Lombards and remained adamant on this issue, unlike his predecessors. He immediately drove away the ambassadorial expedition of the Lombard king Desiderius. Then he, in retaliation, seized the lands that Charles controlled.

Charles was interested in victory over the Lombards, because... posed a great threat to him. King Desiderius demanded that the sons of Charles's brother Carloman, who had taken refuge at his court, be recognized as heirs to the Frankish throne. Charles crossed the Alps. The capital of the Lombards, Pavia, seemed impregnable and Charles decided to starve the city out.

In the spring of 774, when the capital of the Lombard kingdom.

In the spring of 774, when the capital of the Lombard kingdom, Pavia, had not yet surrendered, Charles decided to celebrate Easter in Rome. And this was his first visit to the holy city.

Here, a map from the French documentary History of the French Kings (Charlemagne Series), 2011) shows the Siege of Pavia and Charlemagne's route on his first trip (774) to Rome.

In the spring of 774, the city of Pavia never surrendered, then Charles decided to celebrate Easter in Rome - this was his first visit to the holy city. He promised during the visit that he would conquer Lombardy and transfer the lands to the Roman Church. The annals of the Roman Church indicate that it was from this moment that he began to be called Carolus Magnus, which means Charlemagne.

Since 774, after Charles promised to transfer the lands taken from the Lombards in favor of the Papal States, he began to be called Carolus Magnus, which means Charlemagne in Latin.

Here, a still from the French documentary History of the French Kings (Charlemagne Series), 2011, shows the coat of arms of Charlemagne and the inscription Carolus Magnus against the backdrop of a map of the Frankish Empire (as of 774, shown in blue), the Papal States and besieged Pavia - the capital of the Lombard kingdom, which was being conquered by Charles at that moment (on the map Pavia is surrounded by figures of warriors).

Two months later, the city of Pavia fell, Charles took the title of King of the Franks and King of the Lombards. He entered Pavia in a solemn march, crowned with an iron crown. They say that the clasp of this crown was forged from a nail taken from the holy cross of Christ.

An image of Charlemagne's crown, which he wore during the capture of Pavia.

Still from the French documentary “History of the French Kings (Charlemagne Series), 2011.

Later Charlemagne recovered to conquer the Saxons. Widukind, the king of the Saxons, was one of the most ardent opponents of the Christianization of his people, and in order to establish their dominance, the Franks brutally dealt with the population. At Verdun, 4,500 hostages were beheaded and 12,000 women and children were taken prisoner because of their refusal to convert to Christianity. Kar imagined himself in the role of the punishing sword of God. He devastated the lands, burning everything in his path, overthrowing idols and destroying sanctuaries, inflicting massacres and stealing valuables. He drove entire tribes into the river on pain of death, and the priest baptized them while standing on the top of a hill. At the same time, a number of Saxon leaders were not against converting to Christianity and handed over the instigators of the riots to Charles.

In 785, Charlemagne issued the so-called The "First Saxon Capitulary", instructing the Saxons to be baptized, while the disobedient were punished by death. The Saxon king Widukind surrendered to Charles in exchange for a promise to spare his life. He was baptized during the collective baptism ceremony of the Saxons in 785 in Attigny (Ardennes, now the French region of Champagne - Ardennes) ...

Illustration: Baptism of the Saxon king Widukind during the collective baptism ceremony of the Saxons in 785 in Attigny (Ardennes).

Widukind, wearing a crown, kneels before the Franks.

Still from the French documentary “History of the French Kings (Charlemagne Series), 2011.

Later, Charlemagne once again defeated the Muslim troops settled in Spain, although he did not intend to conquer Muslim Spain, given the significant differences in economics and traditions and considering the Muslim civilization more advanced in the fields of trade, culture, science, arts and crafts. Charlemagne and Pope Hadrian considered containing the Muslims an important task. Charlemagne, in his campaigns against Muslim Spain, pursued two goals at once: to intimidate Muslims and support Christians who fell under their domination.

The relationship between Charlemagne and Pope Adrian I (pontificate: 772-795) was not ideal. Although the Pope had previously been promised Tuscany and southern Italy, the Frankish sovereign preferred to own Italy alone. The independence of the Papal States became more and more formal...

At the same time, Charlemagne paid special attention to the political arrangement and understood that the basis of his power was religion. In 799, high-ranking priests accused Pope Leo III of debauchery (pontificate years: 795-816). They massacred him and threw him into prison. Charlemagne intervened: he freed the Pope and returned him to Rome, accompanied by a reliable escort. After several campaigns against the Saxons, Charlemagne returned to Rome in December 800 to promote the growth of the Pope's authority. According to scholars of the time, such as Alcuin, an exemplary ruler should pursue religious goals of fighting heretics and pagans within and outside his country.

Says Professor Michel Rouche of the Sorbonne University Paris IV: “Alcuin and other theologians believed that since the Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantium) was in the hands of a woman, there was no longer a unified Roman Empire (meaning Empress Irene (reigned from 780 as regent) under his son, from 797 to 802, the first female autocrat on the Byzantine throne in Constantinople. Note Portalostranah.ru) At the same time, these theologians considered the Frankish kings to be the most powerful rulers in the West, and therefore Charlemagne should have led the western part of the empire.” (In other words, Charlemagne, thanks to such justifications and with the approval of the Catholic Church, began to act as the heir to the power of the Roman Empire. Note Portalostranah.ru)

In addition, because Charlemagne became not only the king of the Franks, but also the king of the Lombards, and also subjugated other rulers in the territory of the former Western Roman Empire, then he could claim the status of emperor, i.e. ruler over kings. Thus, Charlemagne created the Carolingian Empire, which included different tribes and contributed to their development.

Pope Leo III supported this policy of unification, but considered spiritual power higher than secular power. He openly spoke about this to Karl more than once. Despite such statements, on Christmas Day 800, Charlemagne was crowned by Pope Leo III in St. Peter's Basilica in Rome and proclaimed Emperor of the West.

Says Professor Michel Rouche from the Sorbonne University Paris IV: “The papacy owes a lot to Charlemagne, because... thanks to him, the province of the Pontificate (i.e., the Papal States), established for the Popes by the father of Charles Pepin the Short, received new development and strengthened. Charles rescued Pope Leo III from captivity, and in gratitude this Pope crowned Charlemagne Emperor of the West on December 25, 800.”

However, at the same time, the pope violated the accepted order of coronation, holding it at his own discretion.

Professor Michel Rouche from the Sorbonne University Paris IV: “The Pope placed the imperial crown on the head of Charlemagne and the crowds gathered around him proclaimed him Emperor. However, the Pope made those standing around declare Charlemagne emperor only after the crown was placed on his head. This did not happen by chance, in this way the Pope wanted to emphasize the primacy of spiritual power over secular power. It turned out that Charles became emperor not because he conquered and subjugated the lands, but because the Lord commanded so. This was the position of the Christian Church."

According to Einhard, Charlemagne's lifetime biographer, the emperor left the ceremony angry, because. he would like to go through this ceremony according to the Byzantine tradition: first by being proclaimed emperor, then by coronation and finally by prostration.

The Byzantine Empire refused to recognize the coronation of the emperor, accusing him of usurping power. Charles and his entourage advocated for a man to rule the eastern part of the empire (Byzantium). However, at that time Empress Irina of Byzantium laid claim to the throne. Only after the signing of the peace treaty in Aix-la-Chapelle (Aachen) in 812 by Michael I Rangavi, the Emperor of the East (i.e. Byzantium) deigned to recognize the imperial title for Charlemagne and his successors, but in a streamlined form he avoided the question of the legality of assigning this to him title, expressed as follows: “Charles, king of the Franks, who is called their emperor.”

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1.2 Emergence of the Papal States:

The Franks help the Popes, and the Popes help the Franks. Against the Lombards and with the powerlessness of Byzantium

In his book “How the Catholic Church Created Western Civilization” (2005, Russian edition 2010), the modern American author Thomas Woods writes:

“The Franks were the most significant of the barbarian tribes. Unlike many other barbarians, the Franks did not convert to Arianism (a heresy that denied the divine nature of Christ); therefore the Church placed its hopes on them. The entire history of missionary activity proves that it was much easier for the Church to convert pagans or animists than to return to its fold those who had already converted to Arianism or Islam. When Clovis became king of the Franks in 481, the episcopate was able to take advantage of the opportunity that presented itself. St. Remigius (Bishop of Reims), in his congratulations, openly wrote to the new king about the benefits that cooperation with the Church would give him: “Show bishops every respect. Always ask them for advice. And if you are in agreement with them, your land will prosper.”

Some historians believe that Clovis's marriage to the beautiful and deeply religious Clotilde was arranged by the bishops, who hoped that this zealous Catholic would convert her crowned husband. Although political considerations undoubtedly played a role in Clovis's conversion, he also appears to have been very impressed by the accounts of the life of Christ. When he heard that Christ was crucified, he allegedly exclaimed: “Oh, if only I were there with my faithful Franks! » Clovis was eventually converted (the exact date is unknown; traditionally it happened in 496; in 1996 the French celebrated the 1500th anniversary of Clovis's baptism). All the barbarian tribes of Europe would not be converted for another four hundred years, but the baptism of Clovis was a promising start...

The Merovingian dynasty, to which Clovis belonged, gradually began to lose influence in the 6th-7th centuries. They were bad rulers and spent a lot of time on quarrels and civil strife; among them it was customary, for example, to burn disobedient relatives alive. During numerous intra-family conflicts, the Merovingians often ceded power and land to Frankish aristocrats in exchange for support. This weakened them greatly. In the 7th century, the degradation of the Merovingians continued; historian Norman Cantor describes the Merovingian rulers of the time as a succession of women, children and madmen.

Unfortunately, the decline of the Merovingians also affected the Church... In the 7th century, the state of the priesthood in the Frankish lands became increasingly deplorable, as the priests became increasingly mired in debauchery and shamelessness...

In the end, the reform of the Frankish church was carried out by Irish and Anglo-Saxon missionaries, immigrants from countries where the Catholic faith came at one time from continental Europe. When the land of the Franks needed an infusion of faith, order and civilization, it received all this from Catholic missionaries.

Nevertheless, in the 8th century, the papacy turned specifically to the Franks in search of protection and support in the revival of Christian civilization.”

From “Essays on the History of the Roman Catholic Church” by Vladimir Rozhkov:

“Also, the evangelization of the German lands strengthened the connection between the popes and the Frankish kings. In 739, Pope St. Gregory III (pontificate years: 731-741) wrote to the future saint Boniface, who carried out missionary activities in these lands: “The Lord deigned to bring these pagans into the fold of the Church through your labors and the help of Charles Martell, king of the Franks.” Without the support of the Franks, the missionaries' work would have been almost impossible.

St. Boniface completed his work by rebuilding the Gallo-Frankish Church, which by that time had fallen into decay. St. Boniface began to introduce the Roman church deanery in Gaul with the help of Pope St. Zacharias (pontificate years: 741-752) and the sons of Charles Martell - Carloman and Pepin the Short. (Recall that Charles, nicknamed Martell (“Hammer”), was not the king of the Franks, but the so-called mayordomo of the Franks - the sovereign ruler under the king from the Merovingian dynasty, who performed only ceremonial functions, and then the actual regent. The son of Charles Martell, Pepin the Short, was also considered the mayordomo , before he overthrew the last Frankish king of the Merovingian dynasty, Childeric III, and became king himself. And he did this with the help of Pope St. Zechariah. About which, among other things, see below Note site).

Pope Zachary was the last of the Greeks to sit on the Papal Throne. In 742, the Lombard king Liutprand handed over to the pope several cities he had captured (in the Italian region of Umbria. Note. Pope Zacharias, with exceptional diplomatic skill, knew how to get along with Liutprand, and under him Italy enjoyed the benefits of peace. Under the influence of Pope Zacharias, a successor in 749 Liutpranda Rathis, along with his wife and daughter, accepted monasticism.When Rathis's brother Aistulf opposed the hegemony of Rome, the Pope entered into an alliance with the Franks...

Boniface himself testifies that among the Franks, next to the faithful, magnanimous, generous Christians, there were many adherents of paganism, and great ignorance and cruelty reigned. And yet, a little later, this people, albeit for a short time, will have to play in the Roman Church, so to speak, the role of the chosen people.

Pepin the Short is elected king of the Franks.

Shown here is the general meeting of the Frankish people in Soissons in 751, during which the Pope's envoys confirmed that the removal of the Merovingian dynasty from power was legal, and the Carolingian dynasty, to which Pepin belonged, and whose representatives traditionally served in the Frankish kingdom as governors (majors) under Merovingians could become kings.

Still from the French documentary “History of the French Kings (Charlemagne Series), 2011.

The envoys of Pepin the Short came to Pope St. Zacharias in 751. They were the Bishop of Würzburg and the Abbot of Saint-Denis. They asked: “Which is better - that one should have the rank of king and the other bear the entire burden of power, or that the one who bears the burden of power should also have the rank of king?” The Pope replied that it would be better for the one who holds the power to be called king. In November of the same year, Pepin convened a general meeting of nobles and people and received consent to a coup d'etat - turning from a majordomo into the king of the Franks, founding his own dynasty. The Merovingian king Childeric III was tonsured a monk, and Pepin was enthroned. It is especially important that for the first time in history he was anointed king. Thus, with the direct support of papal power, the Carolingian dynasty began.

In 754, having become Pope instead of the deceased Zacharias, Pope Stephen II (pontificate years: 752-757) came to Pepin and in the Abbey of Saint-Denis anointed him, the queen and two sons to the kingdom. Pope Stephen II elevated Pepin and his sons to the rank of patricians. This right hitherto belonged to the exarch of the Byzantine emperor. The Pope arrived to ask for help against the Lombards (led by Aistulf), who threatened Ravenna and Rome. More than once the Popes asked in vain for help from Byzantium. This time the Pope traveled north of the Alps for the first time and took the lead in important political negotiations for the first time. Pope Stephen II was the first pope to visit Paris during his trip to the country of the Franks. In Saint-Denis, an agreement was concluded between the pope and the king, which laid the foundations for political relations between the pope and the emperor throughout the Middle Ages,” writes Vladimir Rozhkov. Jene Gergely describes the Pope's journey as follows:

Illustration depicting both Pope Stephen II (pontificate: 752–757)

Illustration depicting Pope Stephen II (pontificate: 752–757; in French spelling his name is Étienne II. This Pope is sometimes also given the serial number III, since there was another Stephen II who was elected Pope, but did not receive episcopal consecration), during a ceremony in 754, in the Abbey of Saint-Denis (in Paris), he anointed the ruler of the Franks, Pepin the Short, and his son, the future Cal the Great, to the kingdom.

At the same time, the Pope also elevated Pepin and his sons to the rank of patricians.

Still from the French documentary “History of the French Kings (Charlemagne Series), 2011.

“In 751, the Lombards captured the Exarchate of Ravenna. There was no doubt that after Ravenna it would be Rome's turn. The new pope, Stephen II (752-757), organized a religious procession in Rome. In the days when Rome found itself defenseless, a plan arose at the papal court: to turn to the Franks with a request for armed intervention. An exchange of ambassadors began in secret between Stephen II and Pepin. Stephen II, in his letters asking for help, again and again reminded the Frankish king that he was able to obtain and strengthen royal power only with the help of the pope. Pepin hesitated because he needed the Lombards in the fight against the Arabs, not to mention the internal opposition that considered the king’s new Italian policy to be incorrect. Being in a cramped position, the Pope himself went to the Franks to achieve a solution. Stephen II was the first pope to cross the Alps in the winter of 753/754. In January 754 he met the king near Pontion. Pepin received the pope with Byzantine ceremonies: he threw himself on the ground in front of him, and then, like a groom, took the pope's horse by the bridle, accompanying the guest.

However, in the church, the Pope, without any ceremony, knelt before the Frankish king and did not rise until Pepin promised to help him against the Lombards. In accordance with the agreement, which meant an alliance between the papacy and the feudal monarchy, Pepin and his successors promised to defend the “rights of Peter”: to win back the exarchate and restore the situation that existed before 680,” points out Jene Gergely.

Vladimir Rozhkov, in turn, continues:

“Pippin spoke out twice in defense of papal interests - in 754 and 755. By deed of gift of Pepin the Short, these cities were “given to the Apostle (Peter) and his representative the Pope, as well as to all his successors, into eternal ownership and possession.”

Thus, the territories around Ravenna and Rome, as well as the “corridor” connecting them, became the basis of the Papal State. It is noteworthy that Rome from that time stopped dating official documents from the years of the reign of the Byzantine emperors and began to mint its own coins. Of great importance was the fact that the popes now received greater secular power.

Popes had already acquired extensive possessions before, since the Emperor of the Roman Empire Constantine (reigned: 306-337.; in 330, moved the capital of the Roman Empire from Rome to Constantinople, which later became the main city of the Eastern Roman Empire - Byzantium. Note.. Mentioned above, Pope Gregory the Great brought the church's endowment holdings into such exemplary order that his successors were rightly considered a huge economic force in Europe. They also had capable people managing their estates and possessions. The popes at that time were the only sovereigns in Western Europe with good trained administrators at their disposal.What had once been a fief became, after the alliance with Pepin, a state, a state that lasted until 1870 and still exists today as the sovereign territory of the Vatican State.

The son of Pepin the Short, Charles, who is known as Charlemagne (reigned 768-814 as king of the Franks; from 774 king of the Lombards - then annexed their controlled Italy to the Frankish kingdom), was crowned Pope St. Leo III (pontificate: 795-816 gg.) at the famous Christmas ceremony of 800, when, after mass in the Basilica of St. Peter's king - probably with surprise - heard that he was greeted with the title of "Emperor of the West."

Leo III not only crowned and hailed him as emperor; The pope knelt before him, extolling the new imperial power in the Byzantine manner. Charlemagne was presented with the ancient imperial title and ancient signs of imperial power. And although St. Leo III knelt before the first head of the new Western Empire; it will not be difficult for his successors to prove that the Church is not at all subordinate to secular power,” writes Vladimir Rozhkov in his modern “Essays on the History of the Roman Catholic Church.” At the same time, we note that the French documentary “The History of the French Kings (Charlemagne series, produced by Merapi Productions, 2011) depicts the coronation of Charlemagne as emperor in the sense that it was Charles who knelt before Pope Leo III (see sidebar) .

Thomas Woods describes Pepin's gift as follows:

“In the past there was a special relationship between the last Roman emperors and the papacy. After the collapse of the Western Roman Empire, such relations were maintained by the papacy with the only surviving fragment of the Roman Empire.

empire - Byzantium (Constantinople was able to resist the barbarians). However, over time they became increasingly tense. In the 7th century, the Eastern Roman Empire was struggling for survival, waging wars with the Arabs and Persians, and could hardly be considered a saint. The throne as reliable protection. In addition, emperors have acquired a bad habit of interfering in the affairs of the Church...

It seemed to some Church leaders that it was time to turn their gaze in a different direction, abandon the traditional reliance on the emperor and find another political force with which a fruitful political alliance could be concluded.

Thus, the Western Church made a most important decision. She decided to reorient herself from the Byzantine emperors to the semi-barbarian Franks, who converted directly to the Catholic faith and were never Arians. In the 8th century, the Church blessed the official transfer of power from the Merovingians to the Carolingians - to the family of Charles Martel, the famous Muslim conqueror at Tours in 732, and ultimately to Charlemagne (or Charlemagne), who eventually became the recognized father of Europe.

The Carolingians rose to prominence as a result of the decline of the Merovingians. They occupied the hereditary position of majordomo, roughly corresponding to the current position of prime minister. The Carolingians were much more skillful and cunning rulers than the Merovingian kings, and gradually they more and more took possession of the reins of power in the kingdom of the Franks. In the middle of the 8th century, the Carolingians, whose power was actually royal, wished to receive a royal title. Pepin the Short, who was majordomo in 751, in a letter to Pope Zacharias I asked whether it was right for a person who does not have power to be called a king, but a person who has power is deprived of this title. The Pope, who understood well what Pepin was hinting at, replied that this was not normal and that names should correspond to entities. Thus, the pope, the highest spiritual authority, blessed the change of ruling dynasties in the kingdom of the Franks, and the last king from the Merovingian dynasty retired to a monastery.

Thus, the Catholic Church facilitated the peaceful transfer of power to the Carolingians from the weakened Merovingians and, together with the Carolingians, set about restoring the values ​​of civilized life. Under the influence of the Church, the barbarian tribe of the Franks turned into builders of civilization. The embodiment of this ideal was Charlemagne (768 - 814), probably the greatest of the Franks. (After the conquests of Charlemagne, the kingdom of the Franks, extending east from the so-called Spanish March, occupied a large part of modern northern Spain, northern Italy, Switzerland, France and Germany.) "

Romano Scalfi in his book does not mention a word about Pepin's gift, saying that it is to Charlemagne that the Papacy owes its state. He writes about the relationship between the Papacy and the Franks:

“At the end of the 7th century, the Frankish tribe gradually gathered under the rule of the Carolingian dynasty. One of its prominent representatives, Charles Martell, expanded his possessions both in the East and in the West. In 732, at the Battle of Poitiers, he completely defeated the Arab army. Charles and his entourage are concerned about converting the defeated Germanic peoples to Christ. But this does not prevent them from seizing the property of the Church and distributing it to the soldiers, which has quite serious consequences for the Church: now bishops and priests, in order to survive, are forced to bow to the nobility.

Before his death (741), Charles Martell divides the kingdom between his sons: Carloman and Pepin. Carloman, a deeply religious man, retires from business and, not far from Rome, on Mount Soratte, establishes a monastery. Subsequently, he becomes a Benedictine monk in Monte Cassino (in Italy).

A well-known figure of the time was Winfried, who later took the name Boniface (life: 673-754). Originally from England and living there in a monastery, and then going to Holland, in 721 he came to Germany for missionary purposes - to the lands of the Frankish state.

He also visits Rome to meet the pope, and there he is elevated to the rank of bishop. The Pope entrusts St. Boniface with the responsibility of bringing the Good News to the pagans, creating new churches and reforming existing ones - those that have lost the true Christian spirit. St. Boniface founds many monasteries and dioceses, he gives a new impetus to spiritual life. In his apostolic and preaching activities, he faces resistance from a considerable number of clergy and nobility. When Carloman, a staunch supporter of St. Boniface, Pepin arrives, the saint is forced to retire to the diocese of Mainz. There he continues to work, from time to time visiting Fulda Abbey (now in the German federal state of Hesse. Note.. For this monastery, wanting to be in closer communion with the universal Church, he asks for direct submission to the pope. In his declining years, St. Boniface goes to Utrecht (now the Netherlands) to continue the work of his old teacher, the monk Willibrord, who baptized the Frisians, and was killed by a crowd of pagans in 754. St. Boniface is rightly called the “Apostle of Germany.”

The power of the House of Carolingians strengthens under Pepin called the Short, the ruler of the Aranks, who later became king. After his election, Pepin receives anointing from the bishops, and this puts him in a privileged position within the Church. Pepin's successor, Charles, called Charlemagne, continues his father's policies.

At this time in Rome, Pope Adrian (pontificate years: 772-792) was experiencing great difficulties. His lands belong to the Emperor of the East (i.e. the Byzantine Emperor), who is unable to protect them. On the other hand, the Lombards lay claim to absolute dominance in Italy. Even after officially joining the Church, most of them follow the Arian heresy and demand complete submission and payment of high taxes from the pope.

Desiderius, king of the Lombards (reigned: 756-774), tries to conquer Rome and other lands of the Byzantine Empire and marches with his army against the Pope. Then Pope Hadrian calls for help from the Frankish king Charlemagne, who crosses the Alps, besieges Pavia (a city in Italy founded in the ancient Roman era, 35 km from Milan; Pavia was the capital of the Lombards during their conquest of Italy), defeats the Lombards and proclaims himself king of the Franks and Lombards.

In 774, on Easter, Charlemagne goes on a pilgrimage to Rome. The Pope gives him the honors due to Byzantine emperors. Pope Adrian and the king pray together and swear mutual allegiance at the tomb of the Apostle Peter.

Pope Adrian receives from Charlemagne part of the lands in Italy belonging to the Lombards: Southern Tuscany, Perugia, some lands of central Italy, Ravenna. By joining the Duchy of Rome, they form the Papal State.

It was from this time that the independence of the pope from the Byzantine emperor began. At this time, the state of the Franks, a Germanic tribe, included, in addition to part of Italy, part of modern France and modern Germany. Another Germanic people lives in the East - the Saxons, mostly still pagans. During numerous campaigns, Charlemagne eventually defeated them and conquered them in 777.

Karl is undoubtedly a successful conqueror, but his greatness lies in the fact that he understands that you cannot achieve everything with wars. Having ensured security at the borders, Karl begins active legislative and organizational activities. Not being himself a man of high culture, he nevertheless appreciates and gathers around him the most outstanding scientists of his time. He establishes a school at court to educate noble people and future statesmen. The court school becomes a model for parish schools in cities and towns. In addition to studying the Gospel and the fundamentals of faith, they also teach secular sciences.

In 795, the kingdom of the Franks became so strong that Charles could devote himself to the internal affairs of the huge state and, above all, take care of the revival of culture and religion. He considers himself not only the king of the Franks, but also of the entire West, which is now independent of the Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantium). Until this time, the Christian empire remained monolithic and the emperor of the East, that is, the Byzantine emperor, had to help the pope maintain the unity of Christians. Western states have always recognized this right.

Now Charles wants to receive the same rights as the Emperor of the East (Byzantine Emperor). From a political point of view, Karl has already had such rights for some time, but there is not enough legal recognition of this fact. And on Christmas night, in the year 800, Pope Leo III crowns Charles Emperor of Rome.

The elevation of Charlemagne to the imperial rank serves to strengthen the unity of the West, but at the same time it also means a deepening of the division between East and West, between Greek-speaking and Latin-speaking Christians (i.e. Christians of Western Europe and the lands of Byzantium. Note site).”

In turn, Yere Gergei describes the circumstances of the creation of the Church Region as follows:

“Pope Adrian I (772-795), sought to ensure that, after the legalization of the sole power of Charlemagne, he again opposed the Franks to the Lombard alliance. The transformation of Charlemagne into an autocratic ruler was facilitated by the fact that Charles managed to acquire the kingdom of the Lombards. The barbarians devastated Rome twice more, until Charlemagne in 774 finally occupied the kingdom of the Lombards and, as king of Italy and patrician of Rome, strengthened Pepin's gift. He annexed the small Lombard duchies to the Papal State.

Adrian I, during his long pontificate, strengthened the sovereignty of the Papal State, relying on the power of the Franks. Charles and the Pope in 781 streamlined the relationship of the Church State with the Frankish kingdom. The King reaffirmed the supreme authority of the Pope over the Duchy of Rome, over Romagna (the former exarchate of Byzantium) and over Pentapolis (the so-called Pentatepolis, a duchy centered in Rimini). However, he did not satisfy the pope's excessive territorial claims. Thus, he did not cede to him the Lombard duchies of Spoleto and Tuscany, giving him the opportunity only to receive certain income from them. At the same time, the Pope received certain possessions in the territories of Sabina, Calabria, Benevento and Naples. The streamlining of relations meant a further step forward towards transforming the Papal State into a sovereign one. Beginning in 781, the Pope no longer dates his letters from the year of the reign of the Byzantine emperor, but from the year of his pontificate. Sovereignty is also emphasized by the fact that Adrian I was the first Pope, who in 784-786. began minting his own money - a silver dinar with a very secular circular inscription on it in Latin: “Victoria domini nostri” (“Victory of our lord”).

The anger of the Frankish king was caused not by jealousy of the church, but by fears for his sovereign interests. After all, only the recently conquered Lombard duchies in Italy, with the support of Byzantium and the papacy, could successfully oppose the Frankish conquests. King Charles learned from this and put the Pope in his place. First of all, he finally separated and isolated the papacy from Byzantium and chained it to the Frankish empire. In 787, the Pope received from Charles the lands adjacent to the Duchy of Tuscany, as well as estates and cities that belonged to Benevento. Charles also promised that he would return to the pope the southern Italian regions that had previously belonged to the church (Naples and Calabria) remaining under Greek rule, if they were captured.

Pope Adrian died at a time when his dreams of papal sovereignty were crumbling. Charles was notified by the embassy of the election of his successor Leo III (795-816). Beginning with Paul I, the patrician was thus informed of the results of elections as a simple act of politeness. At one time, Byzantium, as well as the exarch, demanded that they be approached with a request for approval even before initiation. However, Leo not only, together with the Roman voters, swore an oath of allegiance to the Frankish king, but also at the same time recognized Charles as his overlord. Leo stopped dating his charters only with the year of his pontificate and began to also indicate the year of Charles's reign.

It should be borne in mind that the Popes in Italy, in order to resist the newly emerging Arab (Saracenic) conquerors and the increasingly blatant feudal aristocracy, needed even more than before armed protection from the Franks. But this could only be ensured through complete political submission to the Frankish king.

In 799, during the pontificate of Pope Leo, we encounter a new phenomenon: under the leadership of Pope Adrian's nephew (Leo's deceased predecessor), the Byzantine party rebelled against the pope elected in accordance with the canons. As it turned out, not without reason, a whole series of charges were brought against Pope Leo (perjury, betrayal, violation of marriage, etc.). During a church procession, Leo III was attacked, the robe of a hierarch was torn from him, he was pulled off his donkey and imprisoned in a monastery. Leo managed, having deceived the vigilance of the guards, to go down the rope ladder and flee first to Spoleto, and from there to his master, Charles. The pontificate of the pro-Byzantine Hadrian was followed by the openly pro-Frankish position of Leo III...

According to the chronicle “The Life of Charlemagne” (“The Life of Charlemagne”, or “Vita Caroli Magni”, written by Charlemagne’s contemporary monk Einhard (aged 770-80), we are the most important source on the history of Charlemagne’s reign. Note website), 25 December 800, on Christmas Day, Charles was just in St. Peter's Cathedral in front of Peter's tomb, immersed in prayer, when, in the presence of the assembled people, Pope Leo unexpectedly approached him and, to the triumphant exclamations of the people (Laudes!), crowned Charles, proclaiming him emperor .

And this time the ceremony was performed purely in Byzantine style (there, starting in 450, the emperor was crowned by the patriarch). According to the descriptions of the Frankish court historiographer Einhard, Charles was allegedly not inclined to accept the imperial title: “... as he himself later claimed, he would not have come to church that day, no matter what the solemn holiday then, if he had known in advance the intentions of the Pope.”

However, in reality, in this situation, the new emperor was more disingenuous than the pope who found himself subordinate to him. We may be talking about a well-prepared scenario in which the specific political intentions of both sides are expressed. Agreement is also evidenced by the fact that in memory of this great event, the emperor ordered the minting of a commemorative dinar, on which his and the Pope’s names were engraved. Charles and his entourage presented this matter as if the coronation nevertheless had an unpleasant effect on the Frankish king, probably because in connection with the coronation carried out by the pope, the appearance could arise that the Pope had bestowed the imperial crown on Charles and could therefore consider himself the source imperial power. There is no doubt that the Pope - whether he was asked for it or not - by his participation in the coronation wanted to prevent the formation of an imperial power independent of the church. However, such a thought in itself would be absurd.” For a description of this coronation ceremony as presented in the French documentary “The History of the French Kings (Charlemagne series, produced by Merapi Productions, 2011), see the sidebar.

He became the holder of secular power in Rome in the middle of the 8th century. Until this time, Rome was under the scepter of the “Roman”, i.e., Byzantine emperor and in state terms was subordinate to Constantinople. In the middle of the 8th century, Byzantine possessions in the West, significantly reduced as a result of the Lombard conquests, were under threat. In 752, the Lombards conquered the main stronghold of Byzantium on Italian territory - the Exarchate of Ravenna, and with it the city of Rome. The Lombards lasted here, however, only two years, but it was not the Byzantine emperor who expelled them from here in 754, but his rival, the Frankish king Pepin the Short, who enjoyed the support of the pope. In 756, Pepin the Short transferred the territories conquered from the Lombards to Pope Stephen. From this moment on, the pope becomes the head of state, known as the Papal or Ecclesiastical Region. (It cannot be said, however, that the pope, as the head of state, was always completely independent. Sometimes he was subordinate to the “Roman” emperor. (This is how the successors of Pepin the Short began to be called, first his son Charlemagne, then the German emperors) ).

To ensure this situation, it was necessary to protect the new state from any claims of Byzantium. At a time very close to these events, a document was fabricated - the “Deed of Constantine” (Donatio Constantini or Constitutum Constantini), the purpose of which was to show that secular power over Rome was granted to the pope (in the person of Pope Sylvester) by Constantine the Great himself. By investing the pope with imperial power, Constantine the Great allegedly gave the pope her external attributes: a purple robe, a diadem, a scepter, etc. The cardinals were allegedly elevated to the rank of senators at the same time. The “Deed of Gift” also contains statements that all patriarchs are subordinate to the pope and that his power should extend to the entire Church. Analysis of the style of this document leads scientists to believe that it could have been compiled in the office of Pope Stephen himself or his successor Paul I. In the 9th century, the “Deed of Constantine”, along with other similar forged documents, was included in the collection of church canonical documents - “decretals”, bearing the name of Bishop Isidore of Seville (VII century), famous for his education, who could not have had anything to do with the compilation of this collection (“False Sisidore’s Decretals”). The documents in the collection and, in particular, the “Dedication of Constantine” were accepted by Western canonists for a long time as completely reliable. The popes readily referred to them. Only in the 15th century. doubts began to be expressed about their authenticity ( Lorenzo Valla). This authenticity was defended by Catholics even in disputes with Protestants. Now, however, no one doubts the forgery of the “Deed of Constantine” and other “false Isidore” documents. But in their time they did their job, having a great influence on the development of the doctrine of the power of the pope. The popes begin to look at the Church itself through the eyes of a secular monarch.

State of Rome dad on Wednesday Italy with its center in Rome. Founded in 756 as a result of the donation of these lands to Pope Stephen II by the Frankish king Pepin the Short after his campaign against the Lombards, who threatened Rome. To justify the temporal power of the popes (especially since Rome and its environs were then considered to belong to Byzantium), a forged document was fabricated - the so-called. "The Gift of Constantine"

Feature of P.g. was that its ruler was at the same time the head of all Catholics. The local feudal nobility viewed the pope primarily as the supreme lord and often waged a fierce struggle for the throne. This was aggravated by the order of succession to the throne in P.G. - due to celibacy, the pope could not have heirs, and each new pope was chosen. In addition to the clergy, Rome also participated in the elections. feudal lords, whose factions sought to install their protege (the order was changed in 1059, when popes began to be elected only by cardinals). Often the results of papal elections were affected by the will of powerful emperors and kings of other countries.

Under Charlemagne, the pope was effectively a vassal of the Frankish ruler. The pope's voters swore an oath of allegiance to the king. In 800, Pope Leo III in Rome solemnly crowned Charles emperor. In the papal dominions there were imperial officials who assembled the court. After the collapse of the Carolingian power on the papal throne from the second half. 9th century A real leapfrog unfolded; often the popes were simple puppets of the clique of Rome. nobility From 850 to 1050 the average duration of the pontificate was only 4 years. In 962, Pope John XII crowned Holy Rome Emperor. German Empire, King Otto I, who was recognized as the supreme lord of P.g. From the second floor. XI century strengthening the position of the papacy in the church and in political life of the West. Europe went in parallel with the strengthening of the power of the popes in their state. However, for Rome. For the townspeople, the pope remained primarily a feudal lord, and in Rome in 1143 an uprising broke out, led by Arnold of Brescia. The rebels declared Rome a republic. Papal rule over Rome was restored only a few years later with the help of the troops of Frederick I Barbarossa.

In the XII-XIII centuries. The popes managed to significantly expand the territory of their state. In P.g. such large cities as Perugia, Bologna, Ferrara, Rimini, etc. were included. In 1274, Rudolf of Habsburg officially recognized the independence of the city. from the emperors of Holy Rome. empires. In economic development of P.G. significantly lagged behind the developed North. Italy. The popes did not allow self-government in the cities; in the villages, the personal dependence of the peasants in its most severe forms remained for a long time. During the "captivity of Avignon" (1309-1377), the popes actually lost control over their state. P.g. was in a state of feud and anarchy. In 1347, an attempt was again made to establish a republic in Rome (the uprising of Cola di Rienzo). In the 70s of the XIV century. efforts of the popes to regain dominance over the North. Italy, demanding huge financial means and deft diplomacy brought success. However, the subsequent “Great Schism” and the struggle between Rome. and the Avignon popes again cast P.G. into anarchy, led to its ruin. During the 15th century. the power of the popes over the entire territory of their state was restored, and in the beginning. XVI century territory of P.G. even expanded somewhat. P.g. existed until 1870, when it was annexed by Italy. Currently P.g. is the Vatican (since 1929) - a dwarf state in the center of Rome with an area of ​​44 hectares.

POPAL REGION - theo-kra-ti-che-go-su-dar-st-vo in Central Italy in the years 756-1870, the ruler of which was the pa- pa Roman.

Capital - Rome. After the death of the pope, the newly-elected pope became the new great-vi-tele of the Papal States (until 1059, ho-ven-st-vom and light-ski-mi feo-da-la-mi, since 1059 - kol-le-gi-ey kar-di-na-lov (see).

At the time of the creation of the Papal States, there lived Pi-pin Ko-rot-kiy, who was born in 756 by Pope Ste-fa-nu II (752-757) part of the territory of Ra-venn-skogo ek-zar-ha-ta. Until the middle of the 9th century, the Papal States fact-ti-che-ski entered into the composition of the Karo-ling empire (see), but pon-ti-fi-ki in a hundred Yan-but strived to obtain a political non-for-vi-si-mo-sti. For this purpose, the Roman Curia created a fake document, known as the “Kon-stan-ti-nov gift.” In collaboration with him, the Popes of Rome supposedly had political power back in the 4th century by Emperor Kon-stan-ti. Mr. Ve-li-kim.

From 962 until the end of the 12th century, the Papal States became part of the Holy Roman Empire. In the re-zul-ta-te us-on-foot struggle of the popes with im-pe-ra-to-ra-mi for in-ve-sti-tu-ru Papal States ob-re-la political non-dependence, and its borders in the 12th-13th centuries substantively expanded. In 1188, there was a bit of money here. In 1274, Rudolf I of Habsburg officially recognized the independence of the Papal States from the power of the Holy Roman Emperors im-peri-rii. In the 14th century, during the period of the Avin-on-sko-go-go-ple-ne-niya of the popes (1309-1377), the pa-pas fact-ti-che-ski ut-ra-ti-li control over Papal region, but in the 15th century, relying on the help of con-do-t-e-trenches, they restored their dominion and transformed The papal region into a strong central-tra-li-zo-van-noe state-su-dar-st. In the 16th-17th centuries, an absolute monarchy was formed in the Papal States. The city self-government has been created, the most difficult ones have been preserved for a long time yellow forms of ex-plua-ta-tion of cr-st-yan. All this gradually led to the economic decline of the Papal States, which was especially noticeable against the backdrop of the storm. th development of the neighboring territory.

Since the end of the 18th century, the Papal States became an object of ag-res-siia from the side of Le-o-novo-France. In 1808, Na-po-le-on I up-divided the Papal States, annexing most of its territory to France, and at the same time but carried out a wide-ranging se-ku-la-ri-za-tion of the church-of-the-im-st-va. The Vienna Congress of 1814-1815 restored the Papal States. In the course of the unification of Italy, she more than once came to the attention of the troops of J. Ga-ri-bal -di, in 1870, in connection with the joining of Ri-ma to the Italian co-ro-lion-st-vu, pre-kra-ti-la su-sche-st -in-va-nie. In the race of popes, only Va-ti-kan and some ex-ter-ri-to-ri-al authorities remained. de-niya. In collaboration with La-te-ran-ski-mi with-gla-she-ni-mi-mi 1929 between Italy and the Holy See was at -know su-ve-re-ni-tet Va-ti-ka-na, who became the right-of-pre-em-no-one of the Papal Region.

Papal States
The Papal States, officially the State of the Church (Italian Stato della Chiesa, Latin Status Ecclesiae) are a small state of the Italian peninsula under the direct sovereign rule of the Pope. It borders on the north with the Socialist Republic of Italy and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies on the south.

Spoiler: brief information

Spoiler: Political map

After the Napoleonic Wars and the restoration of the old order after the Congress of Vienna, the Papal State was unstable and faced liberal rebellions, most notably the Roman Republic of 1848, which was crushed in 1850 by the French army, leaving the Papal State firmly opposed to the unification of Italy. completely dependent on French support, which ultimately destroyed the Papacy. After the fall of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, the Piedmontese government asked the French to allow them to take over the Papal State, which they agreed to on the condition that Latium remained intact. This would last until 1870, when the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War forced the French garrison to withdraw, allowing the Kingdom of Italy to conquer the entire Papal State, ending the Pope's rule over central Italy for millennia.
The Papacy, in protest, refused to establish any relations with the new kingdom of Italy, His Holiness, in order to avoid any manifestation of recognition of the authority of the Italian government, did not even leave the Vatican, excommunicated the King of Italy and demanded that all Italian Catholics abstain from voting in the elections. In 1919, the imprisonment ended with the conclusion of a peace treaty between Italy and the Central Powers.
After the collapse of Italy after the World War, Rome was in danger of being captured by the Socialist Republic of Italy. However, King Ferdinand of the revived Kingdom of the Two Sicilies could not allow the center of Catholicism to fall into the hands of the syndicalists and led a military expedition to defend Rome, placing the Papal State under the protection of Sicily with significant support from the Austrian occupying garrisons and the foreign volunteers who made up the revived corps of Pasque Zouaves.
After the end of the war, the Papal State controls only a small part of its nominal territory and is more like a stump state. However, it is recognized as independent by most of the international community.

Policy

The plural name of the Papal States refers to the different regional constituent parts that retain their identity but under the authority of the Pope. The Pope is represented in each province by a governor: in the former Principality of Benevento, in Bologna, Romagna and the Marches of Ancona called a papal legate and a papal delegate in the former Duchy of Pontecorvo, in Campania and the Maritime Province. Other titles such as papal vicar, vicar general and several noble titles such as count or even prince are also used. However, throughout the history of the Papacy, many warlords and even bandits ruled cities and small duchies without any titles granted by the Pope.
The Curia's focus is on the failing health of Pius XI, and the names of four favorite candidates are being whispered throughout: Elia Dalla Costa (Archbishop of Padua, a man revered for his deep faith and holiness, and awarded the Order of the Crown of Italy for his humanitarian services during World War II war), Achille Lienard (Archbishop of Lille, social reformer and supporter of the trade union movement and the missionary movement "Worker Priest"), Eugenio Pacelli (Archbishop of Sardis, a traditional pope who wants to preserve the current order and take care of his home city of Rome) and Alfredo Ildefonso Schuster (Archbishop of Milan, militarist and follower of the Eleventh Crusade, this time against syndicalism).

• Head of the government: Cardinal Eugenio Pacelli
• Foreign Secretary: Cardinal Alfredo Ottaviani
• Minister of Economy: Cardinal Domenico Tardini
• Minister of Intelligence: Cardinal Theodor Innitzer

Agriculture, handicrafts, livestock raising and fishing are the main traditional sources of income. Agriculture is characterized by the cultivation of grapes, fruits, vegetables and olives. Industrial development in the Papal States is limited to the city of Rome and its surrounding areas, making the country largely unsuitable for all-out war. Due to the country's economic problems, the lira exchange rate is pegged to the Sicilian ducat exchange rate.

Culture

The eternal city of Rome is almost completely synonymous with high culture, although there has been little to indicate this since the restoration of independence. Refugees flooded the city, and even 10 years later, many are still here, their tent cities reduced to slums.