A. in
M. G. Yaroshesky - Ch. 2, 3, 4, 10; V. A. Petrovsky - Ch. 6; A.V.
Brushlipsky - Ch. 13
Part I INTRODUCTION TO
PSYCHOLOGY
Reviewers:
Doctor of Psychology, Academician of the Russian Academy of Education V. S. Mukhina;
Doctor of Psychology, Academician of the Russian Academy of Education V. V. Rubtsov
Petrovsky A.V., Yaroshevsky M.G.
P 30 Psychology: Textbook for higher students. ped. schools, institutions. -
2nd ed., stereotype. - M.: Publishing Center<Академия>;
High School, 200 i. - 512 s.
ISBN 5-7695-0465-Х (Publishing center<Академия>)
ISBN 5-06-004170-0 (Higher School)
This textbook is a continuation of the series of textbooks for
universities published under the editorship of A. V. Petrovsky -<Общая психология>
(1970, 1976, 1977, 1986) and<Введение в психологию> (1995, 1996, 1997),
awarded in 1997 by the Government of the Russian Federation in
field of education.
The book reveals the subject, methods, historical path of development
visual-psychological characteristics of personality.
UDC 159.9(075.8)
ISBN 5-7695-0465-Х
ISBN 5-06-004170-0
c Petrovsky A.V., Yaroshevsky M.G., 1998 c
Publishing center<Академия>, 1998
Chapter 1 SUBJECT AND
METHODS OF PSYCHOLOGY
In the 20th century, the scientific foundations for the development were created
the most important problems of psychology. Currently psychology
defined its own special subject of study, its specific
objectives, own research methods; whole people are doing it
psychological institutes, laboratories, educational institutions
They train psychologists and publish special journals.
International psychological studies are systematically collected
congresses, psychologists unite into scientific associations and
society. The importance of psychology as one of the most important sciences about
man is now universally recognized.
SUBJECT OF PSYCHOLOGY
Each specific science differs from other sciences in particular
benefits of its subject. Thus, geology differs from geo-
desia in that, having the Earth as the subject of study, the first of
them studies its composition, structure and history, and the second - its dimensions
and shape. Clarification of the specific features of phenomena,
studied by psychology represents a significantly larger
difficulty. Understanding these phenomena largely depends on the
view held by people faced with
the need to comprehend psychological science.
The difficulty lies primarily in the fact that the phenomena studied
sought after by psychology, have long been distinguished by the human mind and
separated from other manifestations of life as special. IN
in fact, it is quite obvious that my perception of pi-
sewing machine is something completely special and different from
the typewriter itself, a real object that costs
in front of me on the table; my desire to go skiing is
something different compared to a real ski trip; my
the memory of the New Year's Eve is something different -
based on what really happened on New Year's Eve, and
etc. Thus, ideas about various
categories of phenomena that came to be called mental
(mental functions, properties, processes, state
niyami, etc.). Their special character was seen in belonging to
the inner world of a person, different from what
surrounds a person, and was attributed to the area of mental life, pro-
contrasted with real events and facts. These phenomena
grouped under names<восприятие>, <память>,
<мышление>, <воля>, <чувства>etc., collectively forming
what is called the psyche, mental, inner world
a person, his mental life, etc. The psyche concludes
one's own internal picture of the world, inseparable from the human body
and represents the total result of the functional
ning of his body, primarily the central nervous
system, it provides the possibility of existence and
human development in the world.
Although people who directly observed other people in
everyday communication, dealt with various facts
behavior (actions, deeds, labor operations
etc.), however, the needs of practical interaction
forced them to distinguish hidden behind external behavior
mental processes. The action was always seen
intentions, motives that guided a person, behind
reaction to a particular event - character traits.
Therefore, long before mental processes, properties,
states became the subject of scientific analysis, accumulated
everyday psychological knowledge of people about each other. It
was fixed, passed on from generation to generation, in
language, folk art, and works of art. His
collected, for example, proverbs and sayings:<Лучше один раз
to see is to hear ten times> (about the advantages of spectator-
of perception and memorization before auditory);<Привычка -
second nature> (about the role of established habits that can
compete with innate forms of behavior), etc.
Everyday psychological information gleaned from the
social and personal experience, form pre-scientific psycho-
logical knowledge. They can be quite extensive,
can to a certain extent contribute to orientation in
behavior of surrounding people may be in certain
within the limits correct and corresponding to reality.
However, in general, such knowledge is not systematic,
depth, evidence and for this reason cannot become
a solid basis for serious work with people (teaching
logical, therapeutic, organizational, etc.), requiring scientific
nyh, i.e. objective and reliable knowledge about the human psyche
century, allowing one to predict its behavior in certain
other expected circumstances.
What constitutes the subject of scientific study in psychology?
gee? These are, first of all, concrete facts of mental life,
characterized qualitatively and quantitatively. So, exploring
the process of a person’s perception of the objects around him,
psychology has established that the image of an object retains its relation
strong constancy even under changing perceptual conditions
yatiya. For example, the page on which these lines are printed is
will be perceived as white even in bright sunlight
light, and in semi-darkness, and under electric lighting, although
physical characteristics of rays cast by paper
with such different illumination, it will be different. In this
case we have before us a qualitative characteristic of the psycho-
gical fact. An example of a quantitative characteristic
psychological fact can be the speed of reaction
given person to the acting stimulus (if
the subject is offered, in response to the flash of a light bulb,
press the button as quickly as possible, then one has a reaction speed
maybe 200 milliseconds, and another - 150, i.e. know
significantly faster). Individual differences in speed
the reactions observed in the experiment are psychological
scientific facts established in scientific research
NI. They allow us to quantitatively characterize some
mental characteristics of various subjects.
However, scientific psychology cannot limit itself to describing
knowledge of a psychological fact, no matter how interesting it may be
was. Scientific knowledge necessarily requires a transition from
descriptions of phenomena to their explanation. The latter implies
discovery of the laws that govern these phenomena.
Therefore, the subject of study in psychology together with psycho-
Psychological laws become psychological facts. So,
the emergence of some psychological facts observed
is necessary whenever there are resources for this
appropriate conditions, i.e. naturally. Natural
character is, for example, the above fact regarding
physical constancy of perception, while constancy
possesses not only the perception of color, but also the perception of size
ranks and forms of the subject. Special studies have shown
whether that constancy of perception is not given to man initially,
from birth. It is formed gradually, according to strict laws
us. If there were no constancy of perception, a person would not
could navigate the external environment - at the slightest
changing its position relative to surrounding objects
there would be a radical change in the picture of the visible
world, objects would be perceived distorted.
How can one define the subject of psychology? Whatever
advanced in difficult ways over the centuries
psychological thought, mastering its subject, no matter how
knowledge about it changed and was enriched, no matter what the terminology
we have not designated it (soul, consciousness, psyche, activity
etc.), it is possible to identify features that characterize one’s own
is the subject of psychology, distinguishing it from other sciences.
The subject of psychology is the natural connections between subjects
ect with the natural and sociocultural world, captured in
system of sensory and mental images of this world, motivation
elements that motivate action, as well as in the actions themselves,
experiences of one’s relationship to other people and oneself, in
properties of the individual as the core of this system.
Its biologically determined components are also present in
animals (sensory images of the environment, motivation of behavior,
both instinctive and acquired in the process of
abilities for it). However, the mental organization of man
qualitatively different from these biological forms. Co-
The socio-cultural way of life gives rise to consciousness in a person. IN
interpersonal contacts mediated by language and communication
joint activity, individual,<всматриваясь>in others
people, acquires the ability to know oneself as
subject of mental life, set goals in advance, pre-
his actions, to judge the inner plan of his
management Not all components of this plan are translated into English
consciousness. But they, forming the sphere of the unconscious, serve
subject of psychology, which reveals the nature of the corresponding
the expression of actual motives, drives, personal orientation
contradiction to her existing ideas about them. How to realize
conscious and unconscious mental acts are realized
through neurohumoral mechanisms, but do not occur
according to physiological, but according to the actual psychological laws
us. Historical experience says that knowledge about the subject
the field of psychology developed and expanded thanks to
connections of this science with other sciences - natural, social
nal, technical.
The theory occupies a special place among the branches of psychology.
tic psychology. The subject of theoretical psychology
principles, key problems solved throughout
historical path of development of psychological science.
PSYCHOLOGY
in the system of sciences
Modern psychology is at the intersection of a number of sciences. She
occupies an intermediate position between public
sciences, on the one hand, natural sciences, on the other,
technical - from the third. Its closeness to these sciences, even
the presence of industries developed jointly with
some of them, does not in any way deprive her
independence. In all its branches psychology
retains its subject of research, its theoretical
principles, their own ways of studying this subject. What
concerns the versatility of psychological problems, so
significant not only for psychology, but also for related
sciences, this is explained by the fact that the focus of attention of psychologists
there always remains a person - the main character of the world
progress. All sciences and branches of knowledge have meaning and significance
only due to the fact that they serve man, arm him,
are created by him, arise and develop as human theory
and practice. All further development of psychological knowledge
is conceived as the maximum expansion of the connections between psychology and
related sciences while maintaining its independent
subject of research.
Psychology and
scientific-technical
The 20th century is characterized by exceptional
scale development of production, new types of technology,
technical progress in communications, widespread use
electronics, automation, development of new types of transport,
operating at supersonic speeds, etc. All this
makes enormous demands on the human psyche,
dealing with modern technology.
In industry, in transport, in military affairs, everything
taking into account the so-called psycho-
logical factor, i.e. possibilities contained in psi-
chemical cognitive processes - perception, memory,
thinking, in personality traits - character traits,
temperament, reaction speed, etc. So, in conditions of nervous
mental tension caused by the need
make responsible decisions in the shortest possible time
deadlines (situations largely typical for modern super-
sound aviation, for the work of dispatchers-operators of large
energy systems, etc.), turns out to be extremely significant
It is important to have certain personality traits that allow
carry out activities without any errors or disruptions. From-
the presence of these qualities leads to accidents.
The study of human psychological capabilities in connection with
requirements imposed on him by complex types of work
activities, characterizes the important role of modern
psychology. Engineering psychology dealing with solution
Problems<человек-машина>(issues of human interaction
century and technology), as well as the psychology of work in general, is closely
is in contact with many areas of technology.
The further development of psychology was significantly influenced by
has the computer revolution. A number of functions, including
unique property of human consciousness (functional
tions of accumulation and processing of information, management and
control) can now be performed by electronic devices.
The use of information-theoretic concepts and models
lei contributed to the introduction into psychology of new logical
mathematical methods. At the same time, individual studies
teliers, intoxicated by the successes of cybernetics, began to interpret the
catcher like a machine with program control. At that
At the same time, automation and cybernization have sharply increased
interest in learning and using effectively
functions that cannot be transferred to electronic devices
swarms, first of all - creative abilities.
For the future of humanity, for the individual and his psyche
building the significance of the computer revolution is enormous. But somehow
the personality of a person has not changed, no matter what miracles it has created
electronic information technology, it still
mental properties with all the signs will be inherent,
characteristic of the subject of psychology.
Scientific and technological progress, being
Psychology is a factor in the development of psychological science
and pedagogy and helping to free it from speculation
telial representations, currently
clearly revealed the closest connections between psycho
logy with pedagogy. This connection, of course, has always existed
which was realized by advanced psychologists and teachers. You
distinguished Russian teacher K.D. Ushinsky (1824-1870) underlined
nodded that in terms of its significance for pedagogy, psychology
ranks first among all sciences. To educate comprehensively
a person, noted K.D. Ushinsky, must be studied comprehensively.
Development of relationships between psychology and pedagogy, starting with
30s, acquires a dramatic character, causing
hampered by the gross interference of the party leadership in
scientific life. One of the pedagogical
gical scientific disciplines - pedology. Its defeat is
significantly slowed down the development of both psychology and pedagogy.
Pedology is a movement in psychology and pedagogy that arose
neck at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries. as a result of the spread
Publishing house "Phoenix"
Rostov-on-Don
PETROVSKY Artur Vladimirovich (born in 1924), Doctor of Psychology, Professor, Academician of the Russian Academy of Education. Honored Scientist of the Russian Federation, since 1992 President of the Russian Academy of Education.
Author of books on the history of psychology, social psychology, and personality psychology. Editor and author of many times reprinted textbooks on psychology for universities. His books have been translated into many foreign languages.
YAROSHEVSKY Mikhail Grigorievich (born in 1915), Doctor of Psychology, professor, full member of the New York Academy of Sciences, honorary member of the Russian Academy of Education. Chief researcher at the Institute of History of Natural Science and Technology of the Russian Academy of Sciences.
Artist O. Babkin
Petrovsky A. V., Yaroshevsky M. G.
History and theory of psychology - Rostov-on-Don:
Publishing house "Phoenix", 1996. - 416 p.
The work presents an unconventional approach to the historical development of psychological knowledge, which made it possible to trace the evolution of the conceptual structures of psychological science, its explanatory principles and problems from a new angle.
This approach is implemented by focusing on the method of categorical analysis, the purpose of which is to identify the natural and systematic nature of the transformations of scientific knowledge about the psyche.
AND 4704010000 – without announcement BBK 65.5
Petrovsky A.V.
Yaroshevsky M. G.
It has long been known that without a retrospective analysis of scientific knowledge its current state is inexplicable. Any of the problems currently being developed has historical roots. Addressing them is necessary to explain the origin of the problem, to identify productive solutions tested in the practice of its research, on the one hand, and dead-end moves, on the other. Therefore, the historical view is rightly called the self-awareness of science, just as the self-awareness of an individual is formed through his understanding of his past.
As is known, the historical approach requires such a reconstruction of events that would be adequate to their change in historically irreversible time. Without chronology there is no history. Accordingly, any method of studying the dynamics of scientific ideas has as its prerequisite a clear delineation of the process of transition from one era in the evolution of knowledge about the psyche to another. The key points of this evolution are covered in the first part of the book.
The process of “transition” was discussed in detail in the previous works of the authors. When characterizing one of the periods, namely the history of Russian psychology in the Soviet era, the authors, taking into account the one-sidedness they had previously admitted, considered it necessary to pay special attention to assessing the deformations that science underwent under the pressure of ideological attitudes and prohibitions.
Without history there is no theory of science. But in order for the history of science to serve theoretical development and effective development of current problems, history itself should be subjected to special theoretical consideration. Its subject is not the content of thought itself (in relation to psychology, such content is various mental processes, functions, manifestations of personality activity, its properties, etc.), but this scientific thought itself in its dynamics, in the transition from one way of studying subject content to another.
The transformation of scientific thought occurs naturally. With all the variety of individual hypotheses, models, facts, generalizations that are imprinted by various psychological trends and schools, this polyphony and multicoloredness presents a constantly sounding “melody”. It runs through the entire history of science. This is the logic of its development. It covers the stable structures of this development and serves as its axis.
The work presents an unconventional approach to the historical development of psychological knowledge, which allows us to trace the evolution of the conceptual structures of psychological science, its explanatory principles and problems from a new angle. This approach is implemented by focusing on the method of categorical analysis, the purpose of which is to identify the natural and systematic nature of the transformations of scientific knowledge about the psyche. Thus, the history of psychological science merges with its methodology.
The first edition of our book was prepared as part of the program “Renewal of Humanitarian Education in Russia” and was published in 1994 under the title “History of Psychology”.
“History and Theory of Psychology” is a significantly revised and expanded new book. The authors thank the Department of Psychology and Developmental Psychology of the Russian Academy of Education and the Moscow Branch of the Psychological Society for the valuable suggestions made during the discussion of the book at a joint meeting of the Department and the Society.
Professor A.V. Petrovsky
Professor M.G. Yaroshevsky
PART ONE
The book “Being a Personality” by the famous Soviet psychologist, academician of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the USSR A.V. Petrovsky, is dedicated to one of the most important social problems - the formation of the personality of a modern person.
Schoolchildren will learn about the concept of personality developed by scientists and will receive answers to their questions about how to assert their individuality and become an authentic person.
The work presents an unconventional approach to the historical development of psychological knowledge, which made it possible to trace the evolution of the conceptual structures of psychological science, its explanatory principles and problems from a new angle.
This approach is implemented by focusing on the method of categorical analysis, the purpose of which is to identify the natural and systematic nature of the transformations of scientific knowledge about the psyche.
General psychology
This second, revised and expanded edition of “General Psychology” takes into account the introductory nature of the course in general psychology and takes into account the totality of existing teaching aids that will be used by students mastering psychology throughout their entire stay at a pedagogical institute.
We mean the textbook "Age and Pedagogical Psychology" (M., "Prosveshchenie", 1973), "Practical Lessons in Psychology" (M., "Prosveshchenie", 1972), "Collection of Problems in General Psychology" (M. , "Enlightenment", 1974).
Psychology in Russia. XX century
The book examines psychology in Russia in development and retrospect.
For the first time, an idea of the political history of psychology and its main stages is introduced, and a special scientific field is characterized - theoretical psychology as a “theory of theories”. Three chapters are devoted to the emergence and development of social psychology, personality psychology and developmental psychology.
Psychology and time
The final work of the outstanding Russian psychologist A.V. Petrovsky, “Psychology and Time,” is an impartial eyewitness view of the history of Russian psychology of the 20th century and the people who created and developed it, the psychology of society and the events that determined the face of the era, the leaders and heroes of the past century.
A book for psychologists, students, and a wide range of readers interested in psychology.
Psychology about everyone and everyone about psychology
In the constant development of science, one or another branch of science becomes a priority. This was the case with mechanics, biology, and cybernetics. In the coming decades, psychology may play this role.
It is necessary for students of secondary and higher schools, but teachers, doctors, managers, engineers, lawyers, and politicians are no less interested in it. It is important for everyone to understand what the people around us want, what they can do, how to navigate personality traits, conscious and unconscious motives of behavior, memory and thinking, character and temperament.
The role of fantasy in personality development
Fantasy, or imagination, is one of the most important psychological manifestations of the human personality.
The creative, effective nature of fantasy, its strength and richness is a significant indicator of the development of a person’s personality. Fantasy, a dream is a necessary condition for the implementation of human creative forces aimed at transforming reality.
Social Psychology
The book is the first manual for the course “Social Psychology”, introduced at a number of faculties of pedagogical institutes. The basis of the manual is the socio-psychological concept of the collective and the formation of personality, on which the corresponding sections of the textbook “General Psychology” (3rd ed., 1986) are based.
Along with the general sections of the course on social psychology (the subject and tasks of social psychology, personality development in the system of interpersonal relationships, methods of social psychology), the manual includes chapters on the psychology of family relationships, interpersonal relationships in the “student-student” and “teacher-student” systems. , "teachers - teachers."
M. G. Yaroshesky - Ch. 2, 3, 4, 10; V. A. Petrovsky - Ch. 6; A.V.
Brushlipsky - Ch. 13
Part I INTRODUCTION TO
PSYCHOLOGY
Reviewers:
Doctor of Psychology, Academician of the Russian Academy of Education V. S. Mukhina;
Doctor of Psychology, Academician of the Russian Academy of Education V. V. Rubtsov
Petrovsky A.V., Yaroshevsky M.G.
P 30 Psychology: Textbook for higher students. ped. schools, institutions. -
2nd ed., stereotype. - M.: Publishing Center;
High School, 200 i. - 512 s.
ISBN 5-7695-0465-Х (Publishing center)
ISBN 5-06-004170-0 (Higher School)
This textbook is a continuation of the series of textbooks for
universities published under the editorship of A. V. Petrovsky -
(1970, 1976, 1977, 1986) and (1995, 1996, 1997),
awarded in 1997 by the Government of the Russian Federation in
field of education.
The book reveals the subject, methods, historical path of development
visual-psychological characteristics of personality.
UDC 159.9(075.8)
ISBN 5-7695-0465-Х
ISBN 5-06-004170-0
c Petrovsky A.V., Yaroshevsky M.G., 1998 c
Publishing Center, 1998
Chapter 1 SUBJECT AND
^ METHODS OF PSYCHOLOGY
In the 20th century, the scientific foundations for the development were created
the most important problems of psychology. Currently psychology
defined its own special subject of study, its specific
objectives, own research methods; whole people are doing it
psychological institutes, laboratories, educational institutions
They train psychologists and publish special journals.
International psychological studies are systematically collected
congresses, psychologists unite into scientific associations and
society. The importance of psychology as one of the most important sciences about
man is now universally recognized.
^ SUBJECT OF PSYCHOLOGY
Each specific science differs from other sciences in particular
benefits of its subject. Thus, geology differs from geo-
desia in that, having the Earth as the subject of study, the first of
them studies its composition, structure and history, and the second - its dimensions
and shape. Clarification of the specific features of phenomena,
studied by psychology represents a significantly larger
difficulty. Understanding these phenomena largely depends on the
view held by people faced with
the need to comprehend psychological science.
The difficulty lies primarily in the fact that the phenomena studied
sought after by psychology, have long been distinguished by the human mind and
separated from other manifestations of life as special. IN
in fact, it is quite obvious that my perception of pi-
sewing machine is something completely special and different from
the typewriter itself, a real object that costs
in front of me on the table; my desire to go skiing is
something different compared to a real ski trip; my
the memory of the New Year's Eve is something different -
based on what really happened on New Year's Eve, and
etc. Thus, ideas about various
categories of phenomena that came to be called mental
(mental functions, properties, processes, state
niyami, etc.). Their special character was seen in belonging to
the inner world of a person, different from what
surrounds a person, and was attributed to the area of mental life, pro-
contrasted with real events and facts. These phenomena
grouped under the names
And others, collectively forming
what is called the psyche, mental, inner world
a person, his mental life, etc. The psyche concludes
one's own internal picture of the world, inseparable from the human body
and represents the total result of the functional
ning of his body, primarily the central nervous
system, it provides the possibility of existence and
human development in the world.
Although people who directly observed other people in
everyday communication, dealt with various facts
behavior (actions, deeds, labor operations
etc.), however, the needs of practical interaction
forced them to distinguish hidden behind external behavior
mental processes. The action was always seen
intentions, motives that guided a person, behind
reaction to a particular event - character traits.
Therefore, long before mental processes, properties,
states became the subject of scientific analysis, accumulated
everyday psychological knowledge of people about each other. It
was fixed, passed on from generation to generation, in
language, folk art, and works of art. His
collected, for example, proverbs and sayings:
to see is to hear ten times> (about the advantages of spectator-
of perception and memorization before auditory);
second nature> (about the role of established habits that can
compete with innate forms of behavior), etc.
Everyday psychological information gleaned from the
social and personal experience, form pre-scientific psycho-
logical knowledge. They can be quite extensive,
can to a certain extent contribute to orientation in
behavior of surrounding people may be in certain
within the limits correct and corresponding to reality.
However, in general, such knowledge is not systematic,
depth, evidence and for this reason cannot become
a solid basis for serious work with people (teaching
logical, therapeutic, organizational, etc.), requiring scientific
nyh, i.e. objective and reliable knowledge about the human psyche
century, allowing one to predict its behavior in certain
other expected circumstances.
What constitutes the subject of scientific study in psychology?
gee? These are, first of all, concrete facts of mental life,
characterized qualitatively and quantitatively. So, exploring
the process of a person’s perception of the objects around him,
psychology has established that the image of an object retains its relation
strong constancy even under changing perceptual conditions
yatiya. For example, the page on which these lines are printed is
will be perceived as white even in bright sunlight
light, and in semi-darkness, and under electric lighting, although
physical characteristics of rays cast by paper
with such different illumination, it will be different. In this
case we have before us a qualitative characteristic of the psycho-
gical fact. An example of a quantitative characteristic
psychological fact can be the speed of reaction
given person to the acting stimulus (if
the subject is offered, in response to the flash of a light bulb,
press the button as quickly as possible, then one has a reaction speed
maybe 200 milliseconds, and another - 150, i.e. know
significantly faster). Individual differences in speed
the reactions observed in the experiment are psychological
scientific facts established in scientific research
NI. They allow us to quantitatively characterize some
mental characteristics of various subjects.
However, scientific psychology cannot limit itself to describing
knowledge of a psychological fact, no matter how interesting it may be
was. Scientific knowledge necessarily requires a transition from
descriptions of phenomena to their explanation. The latter implies
discovery of the laws that govern these phenomena.
Therefore, the subject of study in psychology together with psycho-
Psychological laws become psychological facts. So,
the emergence of some psychological facts observed
is necessary whenever there are resources for this
appropriate conditions, i.e. naturally. Natural
character is, for example, the above fact regarding
physical constancy of perception, while constancy
possesses not only the perception of color, but also the perception of size
ranks and forms of the subject. Special studies have shown
whether that constancy of perception is not given to man initially,
from birth. It is formed gradually, according to strict laws
us. If there were no constancy of perception, a person would not
could navigate the external environment - at the slightest
changing its position relative to surrounding objects
there would be a radical change in the picture of the visible
world, objects would be perceived distorted.
How can one define the subject of psychology? Whatever
advanced in difficult ways over the centuries
psychological thought, mastering its subject, no matter how
knowledge about it changed and was enriched, no matter what the terminology
we have not designated it (soul, consciousness, psyche, activity
etc.), it is possible to identify features that characterize one’s own
is the subject of psychology, distinguishing it from other sciences.
The subject of psychology is the natural connections between subjects
ect with the natural and sociocultural world, captured in
system of sensory and mental images of this world, motivation
elements that motivate action, as well as in the actions themselves,
experiences of one’s relationship to other people and oneself, in
properties of the individual as the core of this system.
Its biologically determined components are also present in
animals (sensory images of the environment, motivation of behavior,
both instinctive and acquired in the process of
abilities for it). However, the mental organization of man
qualitatively different from these biological forms. Co-
The socio-cultural way of life gives rise to consciousness in a person. IN
interpersonal contacts mediated by language and communication
joint activity, individual, in others
people, acquires the ability to know oneself as
subject of mental life, set goals in advance, pre-
his actions, to judge the inner plan of his
management Not all components of this plan are translated into English
consciousness. But they, forming the sphere of the unconscious, serve
subject of psychology, which reveals the nature of the corresponding
the expression of actual motives, drives, personal orientation
contradiction to her existing ideas about them. How to realize
conscious and unconscious mental acts are realized
through neurohumoral mechanisms, but do not occur
according to physiological, but according to the actual psychological laws
us. Historical experience says that knowledge about the subject
the field of psychology developed and expanded thanks to
connections of this science with other sciences - natural, social
nal, technical.
The theory occupies a special place among the branches of psychology.
tic psychology. The subject of theoretical psychology
principles, key problems solved throughout
historical path of development of psychological science.
PSYCHOLOGY
in the system of sciences
Modern psychology is at the intersection of a number of sciences. She
occupies an intermediate position between public
sciences, on the one hand, natural sciences, on the other,
technical - from the third. Its closeness to these sciences, even
the presence of industries developed jointly with
some of them, does not in any way deprive her
independence. In all its branches psychology
retains its subject of research, its theoretical
principles, their own ways of studying this subject. What
concerns the versatility of psychological problems, so
significant not only for psychology, but also for related
sciences, this is explained by the fact that the focus of attention of psychologists
there always remains a person - the main character of the world
progress. All sciences and branches of knowledge have meaning and significance
only due to the fact that they serve man, arm him,
are created by him, arise and develop as human theory
and practice. All further development of psychological knowledge
is conceived as the maximum expansion of the connections between psychology and
related sciences while maintaining its independent
subject of research.
Psychology and
scientific-technical
The 20th century is characterized by exceptional
scale development of production, new types of technology,
technical progress in communications, widespread use
electronics, automation, development of new types of transport,
operating at supersonic speeds, etc. All this
makes enormous demands on the human psyche,
dealing with modern technology.
In industry, in transport, in military affairs, everything
taking into account the so-called psycho-
logical factor, i.e. possibilities contained in psi-
chemical cognitive processes - perception, memory,
thinking, in personality traits - character traits,
temperament, reaction speed, etc. So, in conditions of nervous
mental tension caused by the need
make responsible decisions in the shortest possible time
deadlines (situations largely typical for modern super-
sound aviation, for the work of dispatchers-operators of large
energy systems, etc.), turns out to be extremely significant
It is important to have certain personality traits that allow
carry out activities without any errors or disruptions. From-
the presence of these qualities leads to accidents.
The study of human psychological capabilities in connection with
requirements imposed on him by complex types of work
activities, characterizes the important role of modern
psychology. Engineering psychology dealing with solution
problems (issues of human interaction
century and technology), as well as the psychology of work in general, is closely
is in contact with many areas of technology.
The further development of psychology was significantly influenced by
has the computer revolution. A number of functions, including
unique property of human consciousness (functional
tions of accumulation and processing of information, management and
control) can now be performed by electronic devices.
The use of information-theoretic concepts and models
lei contributed to the introduction into psychology of new logical
mathematical methods. At the same time, individual studies
teliers, intoxicated by the successes of cybernetics, began to interpret the
Fundamentals of theoretical psychology
1998. - 528 p.ISBN 5-86225-812-4
M.: INFRA-M,
In the multi-level system of psychological training developed by the authors of the book and the corresponding series of textbooks (Russian Federation Government Prize in the field of education 1997), theoretical psychology forms the upper level of this system. Textbook by A.V. Petrovsky and M.G. Yaroshevsky's "Fundamentals of Theoretical Psychology" characterizes its subject, categorical structure, explanatory principles and key problems. The textbook is intended for pedagogical universities and university psychology departments.
The authors of the book are famous psychologists, academicians of the Russian Academy of Education, whose books have been published and republished not only in Russian, but also in many foreign languages.
ISBN 5-86225-812-4
UDC 159.9(075.8) BBK88
c Petrovsky A.V., Yaroshevsky M.G., 1998
The book offers readers (senior-year students of pedagogical universities and psychological faculties of universities, as well as graduate students of psychology departments) a holistic and systematized consideration of the foundations of theoretical psychology as a special branch of science.
The textbook continues and develops the issues contained in the previous works of the authors (Yaroshevsky M.G. History of Psychology, 3rd ed., 1985; Yaroshevsky M.G. Psychology of the 20th Century, 2nd ed., 1974; Petrovsky A.V. , Issues in the history and theory of psychology. Selected works, 1984; Petrovsky A.V., Yaroshevsky M.G. History of psychology, 1995; ; Yaroshevsky M.G. Historical psychology of science, 1996).
The book examines: the subject of theoretical psychology, psychological cognition as an activity, historicism of theoretical analysis, categorical structure, explanatory principles and key problems of psychology. At its core, “Fundamentals of Theoretical Psychology” is a textbook intended for completing a full course in psychology in higher educational institutions.
The introductory chapter “Theoretical psychology as a field of psychological science” and chapters 9, I 1, 14 were written by A.V. Petrovsky; Chapter 10- V.A. Petrovsky; chapters 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 12, 13, 15, 16, 17 - M.G. Yaroshevsky; the final chapter “The categorical system is the core of theoretical psychology” was written jointly by A.V. Petrovsky, V.A. Petrovsky, M.G. Yaroshevsky.
The authors will gratefully accept comments and suggestions that will contribute to further scientific work in the field of theoretical psychology.
Prof. A.V. Petrovsky Prof. M.G. Yaroshevsky
Chapter 2. Historicism of theoretical-psychological analysis...... The evolution of theories as a subject of special study... The problem of analyzing psychological theories
Table of contents
From the authors
Theoretical psychology as a field of psychological science (introductory chapter) Subject of theoretical psychology
History of psychological science and historicism of theoretical psychology.................... Metaphysics and psychology...... .... Categorical structure of psychology
Key problems and explanatory principles of psychology......
From the basics - to the system of theoretical psychology....
PART 1. Prolegomena to theoretical-psychological
research
Chapter 1. Psychological cognition as an activity Science is a special form of knowledge.................................... Theory and empiricism........................................................ ......... From subject knowledge to activity.................... Scientific activity in the three-coordinate system...... Social dimension. ...................................................
The logic of the development of science.
Logic and psychology of scientific creativity............. Communication is the coordinate of science as an activity..... Schools in science............ ........
Reasons for the collapse of scientific schools................................. The emergence of new schools........... ......................... School as a direction in science................... ................ Personality of the scientist................................... ......................... Ideogenesis................................... ................................................ Categorical apperception .. Intrinsic motivation...
Opponent circle................................................... ...Individual cognitive style......Supraconscious............................. ...................................
..3
10 10
13
14 16
22
23
25
25 25 25 27 32 34 37 44 48 51 53 56
62
63
64 67 69 75 78 80
Prerequisites for changing learning theories................................. Two paths in the science of behavior........ .................................... Behavioral sciences......... ................................................... Cognitivism ........................................................ .......................... Historical vector
PART II. Basic categories of psychology
Chapter 3. Theoretical and categorical in the system of science.... Theory and its categorical basis................................... ...... Unity of invariant and variant.
The system of categories and its individual blocks.......................... The origins of the crisis in psychology............................ .......... Categories of psychology and its problems........ Categories and specific scientific concepts Historicism of categorical analysis
Chapter 4. Image category........ Sensory and mental
Primary and secondary qualities. Image as a similarity to an object Image and association....
The problem of constructing an image......... Intention as the actualization of an image Concepts as names............................... The problem of an image in mechanistic picture of the world......... Influence of physiology.................................... ........................ Image and action........
Introspective interpretation of the image Integrity of the image..................... Mental image and word....... Image and information.... .............
Chapter 5. Category of action
General concept of action................................... Action of consciousness and action of the body Association as an intermediary link
Unconscious mental actions
Muscle as an organ of cognitive action......... From sensorimotor action to intellectual........... Interiorization of actions...... ..
Installation.........................................
Chapter 6. Category of motive Localization of motive.....
Affect and reason................... The problem of will.......
Natural and moral...... Motive in the structure of personality.... Motive and field of behavior.......... Dominant.
Overcoming the postulate about the equilibrium of the organism with the environment
Chapter 7. Category of relationship......... The variety of types of relationships The role of relationships in psychology
Attitude as a basic category
Chapter 8. Category of experience......... Experience and personality development. Experience and the subject of psychology Experience as a cultural phenomenon.................................
PART III. Metapsychological categories Chapter 9. Personality category..................
The formation of the concept of “personality” in psychology. “The existence of personality” as a psychological problem................................... L.S. Vygotsky about personality
"Dialogical" model of understanding personality: advantages and limitations....................................... Need " be a person"
The need for personalization and motives of individual behavior.................................................... .......Personality in communication and activity.................... Personality mentality.................. ................................. Personality theory from the standpoint of categorical analysis of psychology......... .......................................... Postulates of personality theory..... .
Methodological foundations of personality theory... Ontological model of personality....................................
Giava 10. Category of activity.................... Activity as the “substance” of activity....... Internal organization of activity External organization of activity....
185
186
187 187 189 191 191 194
199
204
204
205 207
209 212 216 216
,223
223 223
227 236
241 246
248
252
253
257
259
260 264
270 270 275 282
Unity of external and internal organization of activity ........................... Self-propulsion of activity
Chapter II. Category of communication
Communication as information exchange
Communication as interpersonal interaction Communication as people’s understanding of each other.. “Significant other” in the system of interpersonal relationships
Role behavior theory
Development of experimental social psychology...... The principle of activity-based mediation of relationships between people in a group......
Multi-level structure of interpersonal relationships... Theory and empirics in the psychology of interpersonal relationships.................................................... ......................................... Group cohesion and compatibility
Cohesion from the perspective of the activity approach......... Levels of group compatibility.
Origins and psychological characteristics of leadership.
Classical leadership theories
Leadership from the perspective of the theory of activity mediation....................................
Leader Trait Theory Revisited
Leadership in the system of reference relations....................................
PART IV. Explanatory principles of psychology. Chapter 12. The principle of determinism
Pre-mechanical determinism Mechanical determinism
Biological determinism Mental determinism
Macrosocial determinism
Microsocial determinism...
Chapter 13. The principle of consistency....................... Holism......
Elementarism......... Eclecticism...................
Reductionism......................................... External methodologism
The emergence of a systemic understanding of the psyche
The machine as an image of systematicity System "organism - environment"
The origin of the principle of systematicity in psychology Ring regulation of the work of the body system. Mental regulation of behavior Systematicity in psychoanalysis,
Model of neuroses at school I.P. Pavlova Systematicity and expediency
Systematicity and the problem of learning Gestaltism
Sign system System development
Systematicity in the research of J. Piaget Systematic approach to activity..... The principle of systematicity and cybernetics
Gyaava 14. Principle of development.................................
Development of the psyche in phylogenesis.................................. The role of heredity and environment in mental development.... ........................................ Mental development and personality development. The problem of leading activities
Historicism in the analysis of the problem of leading activity Social-psychological concept of personality development
Model of personality development in a relatively stable environment.
Model of personality development. Age periodization
PART V. Key problems of psychology
Chapter 15. Psychophysical problem................................. Monism, dualism and pluralism
The soul as a way of assimilating the external
Transformation of Aristotle's teachings into Thomism Appeal to optics
Mechanics and changing concepts of soul and body
Hypothesis of psychophysical interaction........ Spinoza's innovative version.
Psychophysical parallelism...........
A single origin of the physical, physiological and mental
Advances in physics and the doctrine of parallelism
374 377 379 382 384 387 387 389
392
393 396
399
400
402
403
408 410
421
425 434
437
445 449
456 456
456
457
459
460
462
463 463
465
466
467
Psychophysics
Psychophysical monism physical stimulus as a signal Noosphere as a special shell of the planet
Epava 16. Psychophysiological problem The concept of pneuma
The doctrine of temperaments............. The brain or the heart - the organ of the soul? "General Sensitivity" Mechanism of Associations
The significance of problems discovered during the period of antiquity. Mechanism and a new explanation of the relationship between soul and body.............
The concept of irritability................. The doctrine of nervous vibrations and the unconscious psyche.................................... ...................................
Separation of reflex and the principle of material conditioning of behavior................................................. Return to reflex as act of holistic behavior......................................................... ....................... "Anatomical beginning".................................... .......... Transition to neurodynamics.................................. ... Alarm function...................................................
Chapter 17. Psychognostic problem Contours of the problem..... Knowledge about the mental
Subjective and objective Reflection on scientific knowledge
The categorical system is the core of theoretical psychology (instead of a conclusion)
Literature
Theoretical psychology as a field of psychological science (introductory chapter)
Subject The subject of theoretical psychology is a self-referential theoretical lecture of psychological science, revealing and is-psychology following its categorical structure (protopsychic, basic, metapsychological, extra-psychological categories), explanatory principles (determinism, systematicity, development), key problems arising on the historical path of development of psychology (psychophysical, psychophysiological, psychognostic, etc.), as well as psychological cognition itself as a special type of activity.
The term “theoretical psychology” is found in the works of many authors, but it has not been used to formulate a special scientific field.
Elements of theoretical psychology, included in the context of both general psychology and its applied branches, are presented in the works of Russian and foreign scientists.
Many aspects concerning the nature and structure of psychological cognition were analyzed. The self-reflection of science intensified during crisis periods of its development. Thus, at one of the boundaries of history, namely at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century, discussions flared up about what method of concept formation psychology should focus on - either what is accepted in the natural sciences, or what belongs to to culture. Subsequently, issues related to the subject area of psychology, in contrast to other sciences and specific methods of its study, were discussed from various positions. Topics such as the relationship between theory and empirics, the effectiveness of explanatory principles used in the range of psychological problems, the significance and priority of these problems themselves, etc. were repeatedly touched upon. The most significant contribution to the enrichment of scientific ideas about the uniqueness of psychological science itself, its composition and structure was made by Russian researchers Soviet period P.P. Blonsky, L.S. Vygotsky, M.Ya. Basov, SL. Rubinstein, B.M. Teplov. However, its components have not yet been isolated from the content of various branches of psychology, where they existed with other material (concepts, methods of study, historical information, practical applications, etc.). So, S.L. Rubinstein, in his major work “Fundamentals of General Psychology,” gives an interpretation of various solutions to the psychophysical problem and examines the concept of psychophysiological parallelism, interaction, and unity. But this range of questions n6 acts as the subject of study of a special branch, different from general psychology, which is primarily addressed to the analysis of mental processes and states. Theoretical psychology, therefore, did not act for him (as for other scientists) as a special integral scientific discipline.
A feature of the formation of theoretical psychology at the present time is the contradiction between its already established components (categories, principles, problems) and its non-representation as an integral field, as a system of psychological categories. The authors tried to eliminate the noted contradiction in this book. At the same time, if it were called “Theoretical Psychology,” this would presuppose the completeness of the formation of the field thus designated. In reality, we are dealing with the “openness” of this scientific field to include many new links. In this regard, it is advisable to talk about the “foundations of theoretical psychology,” meaning the further development of problems that ensure the integrity of the scientific field.
In the context of theoretical psychology, the problem of the relationship between empirical knowledge and its theoretical generalization arises. At the same time, the process of psychological cognition itself is considered as a special type of activity. Hence, in particular, the problem of the relationship between objective research methods and introspection data also arises. The theoretically complex question has repeatedly arisen about what introspection actually provides, whether the results of introspection can be considered on a par with what can be obtained by objective methods (B.M. Teplov). Doesn't it turn out that, looking into himself, a person deals not with the analysis of mental processes and states, but only with the external world, which is reflected and presented in them?
An important aspect of the branch of psychology under consideration is its predictive capabilities. Theoretical knowledge is a system not only of statements, but also of predictions regarding the emergence of various phenomena, transitions from one
statements to another without direct reference to sensory experience.
The separation of theoretical psychology into a special sphere of scientific knowledge is due to the fact that psychology is capable, on its own, relying on its own achievements and guided by its own values, to comprehend the origins of its formation and development prospects. We still remember those times when “methodology decided everything,” although the processes of the emergence and application of methodology may have had nothing to do with psychology in society. Many still maintain the belief that the subject of psychology and its main categories can initially be taken from somewhere outside - from the field of extra-psychological knowledge. A huge number of widespread methodological developments devoted to problems of activity, consciousness, communication, personality, development, were written by philosophers, but at the same time addressed specifically to psychologists. The latter were charged with a special vision of their tasks - in the spirit of the quite appropriate question at the end of the 19th century, “Who and how to develop psychology?”, that is, in the search for those areas of scientific knowledge (philosophy, physiology, theology, sociology, etc.) who would create psychological science. Of course, psychology’s search within itself for the sources of its growth, “branching,” flourishing and emergence of sprouts of new theories would be absolutely unthinkable without psychologists turning to special philosophical, cultural, natural science and sociological works. However, despite the importance of the support that non-psychological disciplines provide to psychology, they are not able to replace the work of self-determination of psychological thought. Theoretical psychology responds to this challenge: it forms an image of itself by looking at its past, present and future.
Theoretical psychology is not equal to the sum of psychological theories. Like any whole, it is more than a collection of its parts. Various theories and concepts within theoretical psychology conduct a dialogue with each other, are reflected in each other, discover in themselves what is common and special that brings them together or alienates them. Thus, before us is the meeting place of these theories.
Until now, none of the general psychological theories could declare itself as a theory that is truly general in relation to cumulative psychological knowledge and the conditions for its acquisition. Theoretical psychology is initially focused on building such a system of scientific knowledge in the future. While the material for the development of special psychological
History of psychological science and historicism of theoretical psychology
theories and concepts are facts obtained empirically and generalized in concepts (the first stage of psychological knowledge); the material of theoretical psychology is these theories and concepts themselves (the second stage), arising in specific historical conditions. Inextricably linked areas of psychological science - the history of psychology and theoretical psychology - nevertheless differ significantly in the subject of study. The tasks of a historian of psychology are to trace the development of research and its theoretical formulation in connection with the vicissitudes of civil history and in interaction with related fields of knowledge. The historian of psychology follows from one period of the development of science to another, from characterizing the views of one prominent scientist to analyzing the views of another. In contrast, theoretical psychology uses the principle of historicism to analytically consider the result of the development of science at each of its (development) stages, as a result of which the components of modern theoretical knowledge become clear in the most significant characteristics and approaches. For these purposes, historical material is used to carry out theoretical analysis.
Therefore, the authors considered it appropriate to turn first of all to the activities of Russian psychologists, whose works, due to ideological obstacles, turned out to be very poorly represented in world psychological science. At the same time, the foundations of theoretical psychology proposed for consideration could be built on material obtained by analyzing American, French, German or some other psychology. The legitimacy of such a view can be explained by the fact that in Russian psychology the main directions of psychological thought presented in world science actually turned out to be reflected (with all the difficulties of their relay through the “Iron Curtain”). This refers to the work of Russian psychologists I.M. Sechenova, I.P. Pavlova, V.A. Wagner, S.L. Rubinshteina, L.S. Vygotsky. It is the invariance of theoretical psychology that makes it possible to consider it within currently existing scientific schools and directions that have not lost their significance. Therefore, to characterize theoretical psychology, there is no reason to use the name “history of psychology” and, to the same extent, “theory of psychology,” although both history and theories of psychology are included in its composition.
Metaphysics and Psychology
In 1971 M.G. Yaroshevsky introduced, in contrast to the traditional concept of general philosophical categories covering universal forms of being and knowledge, the concept of the “categorical structure of psychological science.” This innovation was not the result of speculative constructions. While studying the history of psychology, M. G. Yaroshevsky turned to analysis reasons for the collapse of some psychological schools and movements. At the same time, it turned out that their creators turned out to be focused on one relatively isolated psychological phenomenon, obviously a priority for researchers (for example, behaviorism based its views on behavior, action; Gestalt psychology - image, etc. Thus, in the fabric of psychological reality they implicitly identified one invariant “universal”, which became the basis for constructing the corresponding theory in all its branches. This made it easier, on the one hand, to build the logic of the development of a system of research, the transition from some experimental ones. verified statements to others that are confidently predicted. On the other hand, this narrowed the scope of application of the original principles, since it was not based on the foundations that were the starting point for other schools and directions. The introduction of the categorical system as the basis on which basic psychological concepts are developed was of fundamental importance. As in all sciences, in psychology categories acted as the most general and fundamental definitions, covering the most essential properties and relationships of the phenomena being studied. In relation to countless psychological concepts, the identified and described basic categories were system-forming, allowing the construction of categories of a higher order - metapsychological categories (according to A. V. Petrovsky). While the basic categories are: “image”, “motive”, “action”, “attitude”, born, respectively, in Gestalt psychology, psychoanalysis, behaviorism, interactionism, the “metapsychological categories” can be attributed, respectively, “consciousness”, “value”, “activity”, “communication”, etc. If the basic
"Yaroshevsky M.G. Psychology in the 20th century. M., 1971. "The possibility of expanding the categorical structure of psychology beyond the basic and categories can also be shown - a kind of “molecule” of psychological knowledge, then metapsychological categories can be compared with “organisms.”
Isolating, along with “basic” categories, metapsychological categories and the ontological models corresponding to them allows us to move on to the most complete comprehension and explanation of psychological reality. On this path, the opportunity opens up to consider theoretical psychology as a scientific discipline of a metaphysical nature. At the same time, metaphysics is not understood here in the traditional sense of Marxism, which interpreted it as a philosophical method opposite to dialectics (considering phenomena in their immutability and independence from each other, denying internal contradictions as a source of development).
Meanwhile, this flat approach to understanding metaphysics, ignoring its real meaning, rooted in the teachings of Aristotle, can and should be replaced by an appeal to the ideas of the Russian philosopher Vladimir Solovyov. From the point of view of V. Solovyov, metaphysics is, first of all, the doctrine of entities and phenomena that naturally replace each other, coincide and do not coincide with each other. From the point of view of V. Solovyov, the opposition between essence and phenomenon does not stand up to criticism - not only epistemological, but also simply logical. These two concepts have a correlative and formal meaning for him. The phenomenon reveals, manifests its essence, and the essence is revealed, manifests itself in its phenomenon - and at the same time, what is an essence in a certain relation or at a certain level of cognition is only a phenomenon in another relation or at another level of cognition. Turning to psychology, V. Solovyov emphasized (we use his typical phraseology below):<...>. However (according to V. Solovyov) it is known precisely through its external appearance; but this psychological essence, for example, a certain act of will, is only a phenomenon of a general character or mental disposition, which in turn is not the final essence, but only a manifestation of a deeper - soulful - being (intelligible character, according to I. Kant), to which facts of moral crises and degenerations indisputably indicate. Thus, in both the external and internal world, it is completely impossible to draw a definite and constant boundary between essence and phenomenon, and, consequently, between the subject of metaphysics and the positive in science, and their unconditional opposition is a clear mistake.
The metaphysical views of Vladimir Solovyov are of utmost importance for understanding the explanatory principle of constructing a categorical system in theoretical psychology. In meta-psychological categories, the essential characteristics of basic categories appear. At the same time, metapsychological categories themselves can act as essential ones for other categories of a higher order. In the final section of the book they are called extrapsychological.
Metaphysics - in the understanding of Vladimir Solovyov - can become the subject of special attention when developing a system of theoretical psychology.
By identifying the categorical structure, the categorical structure of historicism of psychological analysis and the structure of psychology gives the historian of psychology the opportunity to move to the position of a developer of theoretical psychology.
By formulating the principle of openness of the categorical structure as one of the principles of theoretical psychology, researchers have the opportunity to expand basic categories through psychological understanding of other concepts appearing in psychology, and thus new dyads can be built: basic category - metapsychological category. So, for example, to the four basic categories first introduced by M.G. Yaroshevsky, when characterizing the categorical structure of psychology, in this book adds two more - “experience” and “individual”. The metapsychological development of these categories (based on other, basic ones) can be found, respectively, in such categories as “feeling” and “I”.
So, at this moment in the development of problems of theoretical psychology, the possibility of an upward movement in the concretization of basic psychological categories in the direction of metapsychological categories of varying degrees of generality and specificity can be noted. The following series of hypothetical coo^е^c^в^^f^ interbasic and metapsychological categories emerges:
Image -> Consciousness Motive -> Value Experience -) Feeling Action -> Activity Attitude -> Communication Individual -> Self
* Together with V.A. Petrovsky.
The relationship between basic and metapsychological categories defined below can be interpreted as follows: in each metapsychological category, a certain basic psychological category is revealed through its correlation with other basic categories (which makes it possible to identify the “systemic quality” contained in it). While in each of the basic categories each other basic category exists hidden, “collapsed,” each metapsychological category represents an “unfoldment” of these latent formations. The relationship between the basic categories of psychology can be compared to the relationship between Leibnizian monads: each reflects each. If we try to metaphorically express the relationship between basic and metapsychological categories, then it would be appropriate to recall the hologram: “a part of the hologram (basic category) contains the whole (metapsychological category).” To verify this, just look at any fragment of this “hologram” from a certain angle.
Logically, each metapsychological category is a subject-predicative construction, in which the position of the subject is occupied by some basic category (one example: “image” as a basic category in the metapsychological category - “consciousness”), and the predicate is the relation of this basic category with other basic categories ("motive", "action", "attitude", "experience"). Thus, the metapsychological category “consciousness” is considered as a development of the basic psychological category “image”, and, for example, the basic category “action” takes on a specific form in the metapsychological category “activity”, etc. The basic category is in the function of the logical subject of any me -tapsychological category we will call it the “categorical core”; the categories through which this nuclear category is transformed into a metapsychological category will be designated as “formalizing” (“concretizing”). We depict the formal relationship between basic and metapsychological categories in Fig. 1 (with metapsychological categories, “nuclear” categories are connected here by vertical lines, and “formative” categories - by oblique lines) (see p. 18).
From the above figure it is clear that, in accordance with the principle of openness of the categorical system of theoretical psychology, a number of basic psychological categories, as well as a number of metapsychological ones, are open. Three versions can be proposed to explain this.
Metapsychological categories
vD a D y
^ a" a ^ ^
Basic psychological categories
/*is. /. Basic (core) categories are associated with metapsychological thick vertical lines, and formative ones are associated with thin slanted ones
1. Some psychological categories (both basic and metapsychological) have not yet been studied or identified as categories of theoretical psychology, although in private psychological concepts they appear as “working” concepts.
2. Some categories are born only today; like everything that arises “here and now,” they are still outside the scope of the actual self-reflection of science.
3. Some of the psychological categories will appear, in all likelihood, in private psychological theories over time, in order to someday become part of the categories of theoretical psychology.
The proposed method of ascending to metapsychological categories based on categories of the basic level is further briefly illustrated using the example of correlating some categories that have already been defined in psychology to one degree or another.
Image -> Consciousness. Is “consciousness” really the metapsychological equivalent of the basic category “image”? In recent literature, opinions have been expressed that exclude such a version. It is argued that consciousness is not, as A.N. believed, for example. Leontiev, “in its immediacy... the picture of the world that opens to the subject, in which he himself, his actions and states are included,” is not “an attitude to reality,” but is “an attitude in reality itself,” “a set of relations in the system other relations”, “has no individual existence or individual representation”. In other words, consciousness is supposedly not an image - emphasis
"S
transferred to the "attitude" category. Such a view, it seems to us, follows from a limited understanding of the category “image”. The connection between the concept of “image” and the concept of “idea”, which has a centuries-old tradition in the history of philosophical and psychological thought, has been missed. An idea is an image (thought) in action, a productive representation that forms its object. In the idea, the opposition of the subjective and the objective is overcome. And therefore it is quite reasonable to think that “ideas create the world.” By identifying in an image what characterizes it in terms of its effectiveness (and therefore, the motives, relationships, experiences of the individual), we define it as consciousness. So, consciousness is a holistic image of reality (which in turn means the area of human action), realizing the motives and relationships of the individual and including his self-experience, along with the experience of the externality of the world in which the subject exists. So, the logical core of the definition of the category of “consciousness” here is the basic category “image”, and the formative categories are “action”, “motive”, “relationships”, “experience”, “individual”.
Motive -> Value. The “strength test” of the idea of ascent from abstract (basic) to concrete (metapsychological) categories can also be carried out using the example of the development of the category “motive”. In this case, a difficult question arises about which metapsychological category should be put in correspondence with this basic category ("meaning formation"? "significance"? "value orientations"? "value"?). However, while there is no doubt that all these concepts are in overlap with each other and at the same time correlate with the category “motive,” they cannot - for various reasons - be considered a metapsychological equivalent of the latter. One solution to this problem is to involve the category “value”. By asking what the values of this person are, we are asking about the hidden motives of his behavior, but the motive itself is not yet a value. For example, you can feel attracted to something or someone and at the same time be ashamed of this feeling. Are these motivations “values”? Yes, but only in the sense that these are “negative values”. This phrase should be recognized as derived from the original - “positive” - interpretation of the category “value” (they talk about “material and spiritual, objective and subjective, cognitive and moral values”, etc., etc.). Thus, value is not just a motive, but a motive characterized by a certain place in the system of self-relations of the subject. A motive, considered as a value, appears in the mind of an individual as an essential characteristic of his (the individual’s) existence in the world. We are faced with a similar understanding of value both in everyday and scientific consciousness (“value” in ordinary usage means “a phenomenon, an object that has one meaning or another, is important, significant in some respect”; in philosophical terms it emphasizes the normative evaluative nature of "value"). What is valuable is what a person, according to Hegel, recognizes as his own. However, before a motive appears to an individual as a value, an assessment must be made, and sometimes a revaluation of the role that the motive plays or can play in the processes of self-realization of the individual. In other words, in order for a motive to be included by an individual in his self-image and thus act as a value, the individual must carry out a certain action (value self-determination). The result of this action is not only the image of the motive, but also the experience of this motive by the individual as an important and integral “part” of himself. At the same time, value is something that, in the eyes of a given individual, is also valued by other people, that is, it has a motivating force for them. Through values, the individual personalizes (gains his ideal representation and continuity in communication). Motives-values, being hidden, are actively revealed in communication, serving to “open up” those communicating with each other. Thus, the category of “value” is inseparable from the basic category of “relationship”, considered not only in the internal, but also in the external plane. So, value is a motive that, in the process of self-determination, is considered and experienced by the individual as his own inalienable “part,” which forms the basis for the “self-presentation” (personalization) of the subject in communication.
Experience-^Feeling. The category “experience” (in the broad sense of the word) can be considered as nuclear in the construction of the metapsychological category “feeling”. S.L. Rubinstein in “Fundamentals of General Psychology” distinguished between primary and specific “experience”. In the first meaning (we consider it as defining for the establishment of one of the basic psychological categories), “experience” is considered as an essential characteristic of the psyche, the quality of “belonging” to the individual of what constitutes the “internal content” of his life; S.L. Rubinstein, speaking about the primacy of such an experience, distinguished it from experiences “in a specific, emphasized sense of the word”; the latter have an eventful character, expressing the “uniqueness” and “significance” of something in the inner life of the individual. Such experiences, in our opinion, constitute what can be called
feeling. Special analysis of texts by S.L. Rubinstein could show that the path of formation of an event experience (“feeling”) is a path of mediation: the primary experience that forms it appears in its conditioning on the part of the image, motive, action, and relationships of the individual. Thus, considering “experience” (in a broad sense) as a basic category of psychology, the category “feeling” - in the logic of ascension - can be considered as a metapsychological category.
Action -> Activity. The metapsychological equivalent of the basic category “action” is the category “activity”. This book develops the view according to which activity is a holistic, internally differentiated (originally of a collective-distributive nature) self-valuable action - such an action, the source, goal, means and result of the implementation of which lies in itself. The source of activity is the motives of the individual, its goal is the image of the possible, as a prototype of what will happen, its means are actions in the direction of intermediate goals and, finally, its result is the experience of the relationships that the individual develops with the world (in particular, relationships with others). people).
Attitude -> Communication. The category “relationships” is system-forming (core) for the construction of the metapsychological category “communication”. “To communicate” means to relate to each other, consolidating existing relationships or forming new ones. The constitutive characteristic of relationships is the assumption of the position of another subject ("playing out" his role) and the ability to combine in thoughts and feelings one's own vision of the situation and the point of view of another. This is possible through performing certain actions. The purpose of these actions is the production of something common (something “third” in relation to those communicating). Among these actions are: communicative acts (exchange of information), acts of decentration (putting oneself in the place of another) and personalization (achieving subjective reflection in another). The subjective level of reflection contains a holistic image-experience of another person, which creates additional incentives (motives) for his partner.
Individual -> I. In the logic of “ascending from the abstract to the concrete,” the category “individual” can be considered as the basic one in the construction of the metapsychological category “I”. The basis of such a view is formed by the idea of the individual’s self-identity as an essential characteristic of his “I”. It is assumed that the individual’s experience and perception of his self-identity form an internal and integral characteristic of his “I”: the individual strives to maintain his own integrity, to protect, and therefore, realizes a special attitude towards himself and others, carrying out certain actions. In a word, “I” is the individual’s identity with himself, given to him in the image and experience of himself and forming the motive of his actions and relationships.
Key issues and explanatory principles of psychology
The content of theoretical psychology, along with the categorical system, includes its basic explanatory principles: determinism, development, systematicity. Being general scientific in their significance,
they allow us to understand the nature and character of specific psychological phenomena and patterns.
The principle of determinism reflects the natural dependence of phenomena on the factors that generate them. This principle in psychology allows us to identify the factors that determine the most important characteristics of the human psyche, revealing their dependence on the generating conditions rooted in his existence. The corresponding chapter of the book characterizes various types and forms of determination of psychological phenomena, explaining their origin and characteristics.
The principle of development allows us to understand personality precisely as a developing one, successively passing through phases, periods, epochs and eras of the formation of its essential characteristics. At the same time, it is necessary to emphasize the organic relationship and interdependence of the explanatory principles accepted by theoretical psychology as defining ones.
The principle of systematicity is not a declaration, not a fashionable word usage, as was the case in Russian psychology in the 70s and 80s. Systematicity presupposes the presence of a system-forming principle, which, for example, when applied in the psychology of personality development, makes it possible to understand the characteristics of a developing personality based on the use of the concept of active mediation, which acts as a system-forming principle. Thus, the explanatory principles of psychology are in an indissoluble unity, without which the formation of a methodology of scientific knowledge in psychology is impossible. Explanatory principles in psychology underlie the categorical system proposed in the final section of the book as the core of theoretical psychology,
The key problems of theoretical psychology (psychophysical, psychophysiological, psychognostic, psychosocial, psychopraxical), to the same extent as the categories, form a series open to possible further addition. Arising at virtually every stage of the historical path of formation of psychological knowledge, they turned out to be most dependent on the state of related sciences: philosophy (primarily epistemology), hermeneutics, physiology, as well as social practice. For example, the psychophysiological problem in its solution options (psychophysical parallelism, interaction, unity) bears the imprint of philosophical discussions between supporters of the dualistic and monistic worldview and successes in developing a body of knowledge in the field of psychophysiology. Emphasizing the key nature of these problems, we separate them from the countless number of private issues and problems solved in various fields and branches of psychology. The key problems in this regard could rightfully be considered “classical” ones, which have invariably arisen throughout the two thousand year history of psychology.
From the basics to the theoretical system
The categorical system, explanatory principles and key problems, acting as supports for building the foundations of theoretical psychology and thereby constituting it as a branch of psychology, nevertheless do not exhaust its content.
We can name specific tasks, the solution of which leads to the creation of a system of theoretical psychology as a full-fledged scientific branch. The field of view includes the relationship between the subject and methods of psychological research, the criterial assessment of the validity of psychological concepts, the identification of the place of psychology in the system of scientific knowledge, the causes of the emergence, flourishing and collapse of psychological schools, the relationship between scientific psychological knowledge and esoteric teachings and much more.
In a number of cases, rich material has been accumulated for solving these problems. It is enough to point to the work in the field of psychology of science. However, the integration of the results of theoretical research scattered across various monographs, textbooks, and manuals published in Russia and abroad has not yet been carried out. In this regard, to a large extent, the theoretical foundations for turning industries, scientific schools, and various currents of psychology to themselves, to their own foundations, have not developed.
In its essence, theoretical psychology, opposed to practical psychology, is nevertheless organically connected with it. It makes it possible to separate what meets the requirements of scientific validity from speculations that are not related to science. In Russian psychology in recent years, all this seems especially important.
Theoretical psychology must form a strict attitude towards the content of all branches of psychology, determining their place taking into account the use of explanatory principles, the representation of basic, metapsychological and other categories in them, and ways to solve key scientific problems. In order to move from studying and considering the foundations of theoretical psychology to building its system, it is necessary to identify the system-forming principle. In the recent past, this issue would have been resolved with greater “ease.” The philosophy of Marxism-Leninism would be declared to be a similar principle, although this would not advance the solution of the problem. The point, obviously, is not that, for example, historical materialism, the once dominant ideology, could not play this role, but that the system-forming principle of theoretical psychology generally cannot be completely and completely extracted from other philosophical teachings. It must be found in the very fabric of psychological knowledge, especially its self-awareness and self-realization. This, undoubtedly, is the task that psychological theorists are called upon to solve.
Part 1
PROLEGOMENA
TO THEORETICAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH
